The+Attic+of+an+Addict

Sanya Hromis n7561229 Dr Jey Rodgers

**Isolation. ** //And here I stand in isolation// //feeling emptiness and doubt// //trapped in this darkened world.//

//- Lucas Geniar, 2004//

The Cultural Artefact ** aka The Social Reality. ** This is a photograph taken by amateur photographer Lucas Geniar that depicts a person standing in a dilapidated attic facing a window which is providing the only source of light within the room. The photographer has used a black and white effect with high exposure to create a silhouette masked by its’ surroundings. The title of this piece is ‘Isolation’ and is accompanied by three lines of descriptive text which is presumed to be a projection of what the individual is feeling. The main theme of the text conveys feelings of isolation, emptiness and doubt in a darkened world.

**"What Public health Issue?" said Stigma ** Society has a distorted, unforgiving and in most times, a misinformed view upon drug addicts where they are commonly regarded as dangerous, unpredictable and, crucially, having only themselves to blame for their predicament (Van Niekerk, 2011). This lack of understanding results in social stigmatisation and discrimination which leads many drug addicts to internalise and blame themselves for their position that only results in further loss of confidence and self-esteem which is a serious debilitating factor (UK Drug Policy Commission, 2010).

Like the cultural artefact depicts, these social stigmas results in individuals who are suffering from addiction to be forced to retreat into a mental or physical space where all they have for company are the thoughts and memories of past or present events, conditions or trauma which were predisposes to their current hardship. Recent studies have shifted the paradigm to illustrate addiction, not as a moral failure but as an illness of the mind (Van Niekerk, 2011) and a disease of the brain (Friedman, 2009). Despite such scientific advances, the social barrier of stigmatisation remains a prominent deterrent for addicts seeking access to services they require and is a public health issue that needs to be addressed (Lloyd, 2012).

**Reviewing what we know, what we're doing and why it may **not ** work. ** //“[H]e (the pharmacist) has a separate entrance for us, which means that that separates us from the regular customers right off the hop, so that gives you the sense of ‘you’re not worthy; we have to hide you coming in’”//

__//- A recovering drug addict on entering a pharmacy for their supervised methadone consumption// __ __//(Anstice, Brands, & Strike, 2009, p.802)// __ Stigma is a concept that was introduced by Goffman in 1963 who described the notion as an attribute, behaviour, or reputation that is socially discrediting in a particular way, leading to social disapproval by others people (Sanders, 2012). A more recent and expanded view of stigmatisation points to negative stereotypes that result from stigmata that can in turn be generalised to an entire group of people (Sanders, 2012). Incidences like the one you just read, where discrimination, isolation and stigmatisation are the foremost attitudes demonstrated by society are unfortunately a common occurrence in the daily life of a current, recovering or former illicit drug addict. Stigma towards drug addiction and addicts is a constructed social attitude which was not always apart of social ethos (Major & O’Brien, 2005). The National Drug and Alcohol Research Center (2007) estimated that in 2006 there were 73, 000 methamphetamine addicts alone in Australia. For drug and alcohol workers and other medical professionals, methamphetamine poses a serious problem to resources and treatments in the health industry which is only just one of the illicit drugs in which Australians have dependence too. In present times there is an abundance of research and evidence which demonstrates the relationship between stigma and drug addiction, however the question remains of its importance as a public health issue. Through exploring the methodologies put in place to understand and redress stigmatisation alongside the limitations these methodologies present, a thorough examination can made of the literature available upon this controversial topic to expose the realities of stigmatisation of drug addicts. //(Historic Houses Trust, 2008)//

Illicit drug addicts and drug use which are present in modern day society carry with them the socio-cultural stigmatisation as criminals and ‘junkies’ (Cooper, Friedman, Friedman, Keem & Tempalski, 2007). This is in contrast to the social attitudes which were previously held in the past centuries towards drugs where their use was integrated into many ancient civilisations and societies as ritualistic and recreational patterns of behaviour (Parrillo, 2008). Coming into the 19th and early 20th century what we know as todays illicit drugs were then utilised as medicinal interventions which eased the pain and suffering of illnesses ranging from respiratory disorders, insomnia and even teething relief for infants (Historic Houses Trust, 2008). More specifically, Australia was particularly exposed to Opium due to the influx of Chinese Immigrants during the 1850’s who introduced the substance through recreational use but was later mainly used as a relief for middle class woman during their menstrual cycles or to alleviate depression and as a stress relief for medical professionals (Hamilton, 2001). Drug use has always had a part in Australian history however the social stigma attached to illicit drug is now prominent in Australia as well as other global cultures and is inseparable from cultural strain related to issues as race, religion, social class, gender roles, and intergenerational conflict (White, 2009) which inadvertently creates the conceptualisation of otherness between and within all the mentioned social groups (Calcutt, Skribis & Woodward, 2009). The construction of otherness and stigmatisation within society has been influenced by the inevitable procession of social changes occurring over time which are continuously shaped by the social stratification found in cultures all over the world (Sanders, 2012).

Stigmatisation is a complex social issue which has been explored by many experts in order to find appropriate interventions that would be able to be implemented within affected social populations. which In a study conducted by Fisher, Hayes, Luoma, Padilla, Roget, Twohig and Walyz (2007), the investigation of stigma in individuals receiving treatment for substance abuse was explored and one of the key findings identified showed that stigma had various dimensions. White (2009) further explores these findings to explain that there are essentially three forms of personal stigma associated to drug addiction which are firstly; 'Enacted Stigma' where social ostracism and discrimination is directly experienced, secondly; 'Perceived Stigma' where the individual holds the perceptions of stigmatised attitudes by others to oneself, and finally, 'Self-stigma' where an individual experiences personal feelings of shame and self-loathing related to regret over misdeeds and ‘lost time” in their life due to addiction. There is no other physical or psychiatric condition more associated with social disapproval, stigmata and discrimination than drug dependence (Corrigan, Miller, & Watson, 2006) which constitutes a major obstacle to personal and family recovery as well as the contributes to the marginalisation of addiction professionals and their organisations that results in limitations to the type and magnitude of cultural resources allocated to drug related problems (Woll, 2005). For the drug dependent individual, stigma promotes and reinforces social isolation, limits equitable opportunities for employment and recreation, discourages treatment seeking by those who need it (Carr & Halpin, 2002), and like mentioned earlier, is frequently internalised which leads to self-blame and other debilitating factors (UK Drug Policy Commission, 2010). In addition to the drug dependent individual, stigma can have a negative influence on several important dimensions of the community-living including housing, education, personal safety, employment and social activity (Carr & Halpin, 2002). What has been presented further demonstrates that the stigmatisation of drug addicts is demoralising, degrading and discriminatory which furthermore cannot be disregarded as is a public health issue as it is not isolated to just the individual addict, but also to the local community and to greater society. (//Marchman Act Blog, 2008//) Over the past ten years there have been great advances in psychology and science in determining more scientific explanations of addiction to deter the notion of addition as a moral failure. Robert West was a psychologist who found that there were over 30 known theories attempting to explain addition and used these theories as influence in producing his own which describes addiction as a motivational problem (West, 2006). West (2006) goes on to explain that motivation is complex and multilayered and has important significance in brain chemistry and psychology. According to his theory, addiction can arise from matter of identity, choice, compulsion, or self-control and the motivation changes depending on the exposure to certain triggers which depend on factors related to your physical, mental and emotional state, all of which play an important role in an individual addiction to a drug. Fraser and Valentine (2008) found that the causal explanation of drug use in trauma is widely acknowledged and the recognition that problematic drug use is a response to trauma, abuse, poverty, social disenfranchisement and psychiatric distress should also be useful in countering the cruel banalities of those who condemn both drugs and the ostracised. However, in recent years there has been intensive neurobiological research has made an increasingly strong case that regardless of other factors which are associated with the aetiology of addiction, addiction itself is a brain disease (Li & Volkow, 2004). Recent findings indicate that the brain changes caused by long-term drug use continues to manifest themselves well into abstinence and may be a cause of the relapses into compulsive drug use that can occur long after the drug has been cleared from the body (Friedman, 2009). That relapses can occur long after addicts have been detoxified and is evidence of an enduring alteration of the brain, but much of the public has not yet come to clearly understand how the brain governs behaviour and doesn’t really understand why addicts can’t simply stop, especially after they become aware of negative consequences of drug use (Friedman, 2009).

The relationship between stigma and substance use disorders can manifest differently from that of other stigmatised health conditions, thereby complicating efforts to build social acceptance of people with substance use disorders (Amari, Fang, Livingston, & Milne, 2012). White (2009) has identified three broad social methodologies to address this stigmatisation related to drug addiction as a health disorder which are firstly; protesting and advocacy, secondly; education and lastly; increasing interpersonal contact between mainstream society and members of the stigmatised group. In conjunction, Amari et al (2012) conducted an intervention study which focused on reducing three forms of stigma related to drug addiction which White (2009) identified by utilising his proposed methodologies. His methodologies targeted the needs of the identified groups using specific interventions including;nsurgical procedures to remove needle track-marks from injection drug users, leaflets with photographs depicting positive stories of people with substance use disorders in recovery/ remission and even targeted medical students and police officers to improve attitides towards people with substance abuse disorders through structed education programs and direct contact. Over half of these interventions achieved positive results in all stigma related outcomes with the remainder reporting mixed results, meaning that they found improvement on some but not all stigma variables. Nevertheless, this evidence proves that with the right information dissemination, prevention education, community-based and media –based approaches it is possible to reduce drug-related stigma to allow addiction suffers to seek the access to services they require (Australian Injecting and Illicit Drug league, 2011).

There were many limitations of these methodologies which were acknowledged. Where the methodologies of Amari et al (2012) were intervened, they were targeted to small sample sizes within the population which creates uncertainty about the generalisability to different populations and contexts (Amari et al, 2012). As well, society is vulnerable to how media chooses to portray drug addiction as social media is a crucial influence in how the general public forms an understanding of addition and problem drug users (Lloyd, 2010). The influence to what media reports stems largely form what government policy represents in regards to drug addiction. Current Australian drug policies and drug control laws allow systems and institutions in society to routinely reinforce the acceptability of stigmatising and discriminating against people with a history of drug addiction and over time a pattern of cultural violence emerges (Australian Injecting and Illicit Drug league, 2011). <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">The literature which has been explored constructs a confronting image of stigmatisation of illicit drug addicts. The discrimination and disregard in which is constantly presented to individuals is constructing barriers in the lives of illicit drug addicts and also to the greater population. Methodologies have been identified and trialed however due to limitation relating to various factors, further investigation must take place in order for meaningful change to occur to alter social stigmata. <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Courier New',Courier,monospace; text-align: center;">

<span style="font-family: 'Courier New',Courier,monospace; font-size: 160%;">**Society & Culture** = //Utmost Importance//. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Social theories are used as frameworks for thinking for viewing the world, people and how these two things interact. They are an important component in understanding how and why society and culture are crucial considerations against the stigmatisation of drug addiction. Structural functionalism is a social theory largely created by August Comte, Emile Durkheim and Talcott Parsons that utilises macrosociology to describes society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability (Anderson, 1998). By enabling society to apply these frameworks to stigmatised social populations, like drug dependent individuals, theoretically society would become more critical and insightful about their perceptions of their surroundings. As an outcome, this will introduce Karl Marx’s conflict/critical theory which describes the idea that certain social groups seek to dominate and exploit others for their personal means, which has devastating implications for society on both an economic and an ethical level (Hansen, 2008). To reduce these inequalities, Marx wrote about the disposal of these gross inequalities – which can be achieved by applying the social theory mentioned earlier. The consequence of this leads to Hegel’s philosophy of otherness which was further extend on up Sarte and Heidegger who spoke about our fear of differences and of the unknown – where the unknown is anything outside of our own minds and our own frame of thinking. This sense of otherness is a major influence upon society’s stigmatisation of illicit drug addiction and drug addicts as a social group. If the application of the social theories of structural functionalism and Marxism were emphasised into societies, in combination with the awareness of the philosophy of otherness, social inequalities would be reduced as society would have more critical, understanding and insightful perception upon illicit drug addiction which would bridge the otherness created through the sense of dominating the unknown and misunderstood.

//<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">(Harm Reduction Coalition, 2013) //

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">The stigmatisation of illicit drug users is influenced and affected by many regions of society on a spectrum of levels ranging from medical professionals, government, policy, media, schools, family, advocacy groups and organisations, drug users, and many more. Society functions in such a way that it is inevitable to avoid exposure to physical or digital exposure to this issue at some point in one’s life. However social and cultural populations as Indigenous Australians, pregnant woman, the female gender, low socioeconomic-status populates, the gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender community, parents, populations with a criminal record, the homeless and populations suffering from mental illness are most affected by the stigmatisation of illicit drug dependence within Australia.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Awareness of the stigmatisation of illicit drug use is crucial as It enables reinforcement of the concept that we are a whole society and that every population group within it needs to be acknowledged without otherness and without discrimination. This needs to be an ongoing discussion as current policies aren’t working effectively and social attitudes are not changing which is creating further development of this stigmata which is causing a burden on the Australian economy and health care system without producing any positive outcomes to people’s lives. This topic is complex and unique to the individual as not every person who experiences illicit drug use stigma does so in the same way as explained by Fisher et al (2007). Public health experts are the driving force to diminish this social inequality. As health professionals and advocates, where they place their focus is essential to the outcomes which the affected population wants to see happen. The focus needs to be placed upon stigmatisation that illicit drug dependence populations feel internally to empower illicit drug dependent individuals to regain confidence and hope to seek help and recovery. But of just as equal importance is the focus which needs to be placed upon society to destruct the prejudice and discrimination which is the origin of where the stigmatisation of illicit drug addicts is created.

**<span style="font-family: 'Courier New',Courier,monospace; font-size: 160%;">//Looking through// **<span style="font-family: 'Courier New',Courier,monospace; font-size: 160%;">my **<span style="font-family: 'Courier New',Courier,monospace; font-size: 160%;">//lenses//... ** <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">The artefact which I have chosen represents the isolation, darkness, doubt and emptiness which are experienced by drug addicts exposed to social stigmatisation. The location of the attic is symbolic of the similar location in which drug addicts are pushed and forced to retreat into by stigmata and discrimination that society places upon them. Attics are used as storage of unwanted, unneeded and unappreciated belongings. These belongings become neglected and forgotten, only to be acknowledged when it is time to rid of them and society only ever acknowledges addicts for the same reasons. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;"> The parallels of the artefact and the addict are evident with the understanding of how social stigmatisation really impacts the life of a drug addict. If a life filled with the continuous motions of having a disorder that corrupts the normal functioning of your brain or having predisposing factors in which contributed to your addiction isn’t hard enough, society unfortunately chooses to close the door on the real issues and absorb the negativity projected from their favourite news report. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;"> This topic was particularly meaningful to me as when I started high school I met a group of boys who I became extremely good friends who over the years we formed what I thought was a strong and true friendship with each other and had no intention of ever changing that. Fast forward to five or six years later and my nights with them turned into me sitting on the couch trying to stimulate some form of conversation amongst the group while they used their bongs, smoked their joints, placed their tabs on their tongues, swallowed their pills and drank their syrups. The conversations never really went beyond a few replies until they would escape into a world of their own and building invisible walls from mine.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">I always defended their lifestyle through accepting that it was their choice to do what they wanted to do in their lives. I continued to go and see them and continued to try to make conversation but one day I started seeing the change that they had made within themselves and it made me angry. I became sick of having to start the conversations and always being the one to see them, rather than they see me. So I stopped contacting them and seeing them with the assumption that they wouldn’t have even noticed.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Reflecting on the decision I made then in conjunction with what I have learnt about illicit drug addition these past few months has made me realise that it wasn’t a case of those guys being bad friends to me, it was more about the addiction they had to the drugs they were taking. I now understand that because of that their brains and bodies underwent changes which they didn’t have much control over and by leaving their lives I was further isolating them and placing otherness between myself and my friends. As friends we were involved in each others lives however little did I know of their internal struggles which weren't vocalised and I realise now that by making the choice that I did, I was isolating them and creating otherness between us and them and I was pushing them into my attic.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">My thinking, attitude and vision has completely altered after exploring the nature of illicit drug addiction and stigmatisation to allow me to have a greater knowledge and understanding of these topics which society so easily condemns. As a future nurse and public health practitioner, I have no doubt that I will be exposed to drug addiction at various points in my career and I believe that I have acquired the foundation to enable me to educate not just patients and clients, but family and friends aswell. I now understand that ceasing the stigmatisation of drug addicts is a social change which needs to occur, although it may take some time I can only hope that one day society will agree with me when I say that they are not just drug addicts, but people suffering from addiction.

**<span style="font-family: 'Courier New',Courier,monospace; font-size: 160%;">References **

<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">Ameri, E., Fang, M.L., Livingston, J.D., & Milne, T. (2012). The effectiveness of interventions for reducing stigma related to substance use disorders: a systematic review. //Addiction, 107//(1), 39-50. doi: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2011.03601.x <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">Anderson, T. L. (1998). A Cultural-Identity Theory of Drug Abuse. Sociology of Crime, Law, and Deviance, 1, 233-262. <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">Anstice, S., Brands, B., & Strike, C.J. (2009). Supervised Methadone Consumption:Client Issues and Stigma. //Substance Use and Misuse, 44//(6), 794-808. doi:10.1080/10826080802483936 <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">Calcutt, L., Skribus, Z., & Woodward, I. (2009). Conceptualizing otherness: an exploration of the cosmopolitan schema. //Journal of Sociology. 45//(2), 169-186. Retrieved from [] <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">Carr, V., & Halpin, S. (2002). Stigma and Discrimination: A Bulletin of the Low Prevalence Disorders Study. //Australian Government, Commonwelath Department of Health and Aging.// Retrieved from [] <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">Cooper, H., Friedman, R., Friedman, S.R., Keem, M., & Tempalski, B. (2007). NIMBY Localism and National Inequitable Exclusion Alliances: The case of syringe exchange in the United States. //Geoforum, 38//(6), 1250-1263. doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2007.03.012 <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">Corrigan, P.W., Miller, F.E., & Watson, A.C. (2006). Blame, shame and contamination: The impact of mental illness and drug dependence stigma on family members. //Journal of Family Psychology, 20//(2). 239-246. <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">Fraser, S., & Valentine, K. (2008). Trauma, damage and pleasure: Rethinking problematic drug use. //International Journal of Drug Policy, 19//(5), 410-416. Retrieved from [] <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">Friedman, D. (2009). "Drug addiction: a chronically relapsing brain disease". //North Carolina medical journal 70//(1), 35. Retrieved from http://www.ncmedicaljournal.com/archives/?drug-assiction-a-chronically-relapsng-brain-disease-3586 <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">Geniar, L. (2004). Isolation [Image]. Retrieved from: http://www.deviantart.com/art/Isolation-10523344 <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">Hamilton, M. (2001). Australia's Drug Policy- Our Own?. In Gerber, J., & Jensen, E.L.(2008). //Drug War, American Style: The internationalisation of Failed Policy and itd Alternatives (essay collection//). Taylor and Francis, 97-120. <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">Hansen, T. (2008). Critical conflict resolution theory and practice. //Conflict Resolution Quarterly, 25//(4), 403-427. <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">Historic Houses Trust. (2008). //Drugs: A Social History//. Sydney Living Museums. Retrieved from <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">http://www.hht.net.au/whats_on/past_exhibitions/jpm/drugs_a_social_history <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">Lloyd, C. (2012). "The stigmatization of problem drug users: A narrative literature review". //Drugs, 20// (2), 1.Retrieved from ..... <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">Lloyd, C. (2010). Sinning and Sinned against: The Stigmatisation of Problem Drug Users. //UK Commision Drug Policy Commsion.// Retrieved from [] <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"> <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">Marchman Act Blog. (2008). Perspective from Across the Pond: Extreme social stigma holds back drug recovery [Image]. Retrieved from http://www.marchmanactblog.com/2010_08_01_archive.htm <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"> <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">Major, B., & O’Brien, L.T. (2005). The Social Psychology of Stigma. //Annual Review of Psychology, 56// (1), 393-421. Retrieved from [] <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">National Drug and Research Centre. (2007). Illicit Drug Use In Australia: Epidemiology, use patterns and associated harm.//Commonwealth of Australia.// Retrieved from http://www.health.gov.au/internet/drugstrategy/publishing.nsf/Content/17B917608C1969ABCA257317001A72D4/$File/mono-63.pdf <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"> <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">Parrillo, V.N. (2008). Encyclopedia of Social Problems - Drug Abuse. //SAGE Knowledge//, 255-259. doi:10.4135/9781412963930 <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">Sanders, J.M. (2012). Use of Mutual Support to Counteract the Effects of Socially Constructed Stigma: Gender and Drug Addiction. //Journal of Groups In Addiction and Recovery, 7//(2-4), 237-252 DOI: 10.1080/1556035X.2012.705705 <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">West, R. (2006). //Theory of Addiction.// Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing. <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">White, W. (2009). Long term strategies to reduce the stigma attached to addiction, treatment and recovery within the City of Philadelphia (With particular reference to medication-assisted treatment/recovery). //Department of Behavioural Health and Mental Retardation Services//. Retrieved from [] <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">Woll, P. (2005). Healing the stigma of addiction: A guide for treatment professionals. //Great Lakes Addiction Transfer Technology Centre,// 239-24. <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">Van Niekerk, J. (2011). Addiction. //South African Medical Journal, 101//(10). Retrieved from http://www.samj.org.za/index.php/samj/article/view/5291/3572

1. http://healthcultureandsociety2013.wikispaces.com/A+Few+Reasons+Why-+Transgender+Rights+and+the+Human+Rights+Argument 2. http://healthcultureandsociety2013.wikispaces.com/Safe%2C+Sane+and+Consensual
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