How+Sorry+Are+We?

Cameron Allan n8839948 Tutor: Michelle Cornford The Apology media type="youtube" key="e5ShuSkgXx0" align="center" width="560" height="315"

Transcript: @http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/our-country/our-people/apology-to-australias-indigenous-peoples Injustice towards Indigenous Australians has been a common theme running through Australia’s history since European settlement. One of the most tangible examples for present-day Australians is the forced removal of mixed-race children from their families. The people removed from their families are collectively known as the //Stolen Generations//. In 2008, then Prime Minister Kevin Rudd made an apology to the Indigenous peoples of Australia. The Apology, as it came to be known, was regarding past injustices towards Indigenous Australians, particularly the Stolen Generations and those families that continue to be affected by the practice of forced removal.

The Health of Indigenous Australians A large range of indicators show a clear gap between the health of Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians. Some examples of the poor health of Indigenous Australians include: (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2012)
 * life expectancy is lowered 9.7 years for females and 11.5 years for males
 * double the rate of high/very high levels of psychological distress – a rate of 32%
 * double the rate of smoking – 45%
 * 25% live in overcrowded housing
 * 10 times the age-standardised rate of kidney disease.

These problems all stem from the mistreatment of Indigenous Australians following colonisation, with the Stolen Generations playing a significant role. In a relative sense, colonialism in Australia has quite a poor record with regards to human rights (O'Sullivan, 2012). Others with similar histories, such as Canada and New Zealand, have done better. In a more absolute sense, the disadvantage in terms of both human rights and health experienced by indigenous Australians is stark. The Apology is one important event which has likely had some positive impact on progress towards righting this situation.



With the house full, the only place left to sleep is outside. From news.com.au.

Understanding the need for The Apology An overview of white Australia’s history is necessary if one is to understand the enormity of loss and destruction suffered by Indigenous Australians. When Australia was colonised by European settlers, Australia was declared //terra nullius//, i.e., the land belonged to no-one (Australian Human Rights Commission, 2005). This lay the foundations for blatant discriminatory mistreatment of Indigenous Australians.

Following the arrival of the First Fleet in 1788, the population of Indigenous Australians began to decline rapidly. Deaths were primary due to massacre, sexual abuse, and disease (Harris, 2003). Estimates of the Indigenous population in 1788 vary widely, ranging from 300,000 to over 1 million. By the 1920s, only 58,000 ‘full-blood’ Indigenous people remained, meaning a reduction of at least 80%, possibly much higher (Harris, 2003).

Following approximately 100 years of violence, treatment of Indigenous Australians started to become less physically violent, and more humane according to the thinking of the time (Bretherton & Mellor, 2006). Indigenous Australians were subject to //structural violence//, a term coined by Galtung (1969), meaning discriminatory treatment of groups of people using economic and political means (Bretherton & Mellor, 2006). One prominent example of this is the racism endured by Indigenous Australians inherent in the policies of forced removal of children from their families. While this practice was also common in the early, violent years, it was the official government policies between approximately 1910 and 1970 that lead to what is now known as the Stolen Generations.

Government policies from the late 1800s through to the mid 1900s were shaped by an extension of Darwin’s theory of natural selection, and Smith’s model of laissez-faire capitalism (Dafler & Callaghan, 2005). This concept became known as //Social Darwinism//. It was essentially the idea that certain races were superior to others as a natural result of evolution. Dafler and Callaghan (2005) explain that this was a powerful rhetoric used to justify the maintenance of control of one race over another. It was a convenient reasoning for the oppression and abuse of Indigenous Australians.

With whites at the top of the ladder, it was believed that blacks would die out (Dafler & Callaghan, 2005). ’Full-blood’ Indigenous people were segregated and kept on stations. The problem was what to do with //half-castes// – people of mixed racial heritage. These people were believed to have some value, and that over time, it would be possible to “breed the blackness out of them” (Fejo-King, 2011). The existence of half-castes was the //Aboriginal Problem//, and the solution was the implementation of practices known as //absorption//, and later, //assimilation//.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Absorption and assimilation entailed the forced removal of half-caste children from their homes, families, and communities. Removal typically occurred at any age between birth and 10 years (Australian Human Rights Commission, 1997). These children were sent to missions or foster families under the assertion that parents with any indigenous heritage were unfit to bring up a child. Estimates of the number of children forcibly removed range from one in ten to one in three (Australian Human Rights Commission, 1997).

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Prior to the 2nd World War, racism was pervasive (Attwood, 2001), with many whites believing in the generosity and morality of forced removal. After the Holocaust, policies based on Social Darwinism became far less acceptable (Dafler & Callaghan, 2005). This prompted a change, but only in semantics. The Child Welfare Act replaced the Aboriginal Act, meaning the official reasons for forced removals were now purely based on moral grounds. In practice however, little changed.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The steepest decline in forced removals occurred after the election of the Whitlam Labor Government in 1972 (Australian Human Rights Commission, 1997). Funding for Indigenous groups to challenge the legality of forced removals saw an immediate and rapid decline in rates of removal.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The health consequences of forced removals are wide-ranging, numerous, enduring, and severe. Effects are felt all the way from the individual subjected to removal, to the Indigenous population as a whole; even those who identify as white Australians are affected. The Bringing Them Home report (Australian Human Rights Commission, 1997) identified numerous effects on the child, the parents, and the community, as outlined below:

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The individual:
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">emotional attachment at an early age prevented, leading to a variety of psychiatric disorders throughout life
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">learning difficulties
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">relationship difficulties
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">decreased sense of self worth leading to increased risk-taking activities
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">about two-thirds of stolen children report being physically abused, with one-sixth reporting sexual abuse
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">poor adult mental health very often leads to poor physical health
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">sense of identity – neither Indigenous nor white

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The family and community:
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">parents and close relatives experience the trauma of the loss of a child – adds to the already high levels of stress experienced by Indigenous people; alcohol abuse common
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">guilt – especially high for mixed-race and white parents
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">child-rearing function of whole communities undermined, leading to a decrease in morale and functionality
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">destruction of cultural links – general loss of cultural knowledge
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">difficult for Stolen Generation to gain land rights, as links with communities are lost


 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Health Research **

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">In a very recent review of the literature regarding the health of young Indigenous Australians, Azzopardi et al. (2013) found that while the body of data is certainly growing, there are some clear gaps; in particular there are few studies relating to urban locations, mental disorders, and injury. As young people (10-24 years) make up a relatively large proportion of the Indigenous population, this is seen as a particularly important group to understand.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Another problem identified by Azzopardi et al. (2013) is that studies tend to focus on conditions treatable with medical interventions, with relatively few studies addressing social exclusion or socioeconomic disadvantage. There also need to be evaluations of the effectiveness of programs aimed at increasing social and emotional wellbeing (Day & Francisco, 2013). The relative lack of these studies may be related to funding issues. The Close the Gap campaign, for example, focusses on easily-measured indicators such as life expectancy and infant mortality.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Regarding the Stolen Generations specifically, it has evidently been impossible for researchers to establish precise statistics; for example, the number of children removed is reported at between one in ten and one in three. Reasons for this include the loss or destruction of historical records, and the access that researchers have to witnesses and/or the willingness of witnesses to tell their stories (Australian Human Rights Commission, 1997). An additional variable is whether or not people choose to identify as indigenous. Furthermore, given the enormous range of factors influencing health, and our relatively limited understanding of Indigenous culture and ontology (Tonmyr & Blackstock, 2010), it is especially challenging to ascertain precisely what amount of current ill-health is attributable to the Stolen Generations. There is little doubt however, that the effects are real and enduring (Lawry, 2010).

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Cultural and Social Analysis <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">//Reconciliation// is the term used in Australia to describe actions taken to redress past injustices to Indigenous people. Unfortunately, for some on the conservative side of the political spectrum, ‘reconciliation’ may mean nothing more than settling disputes, such as land rights issues, even if the outcome is detrimental to Indigenous people (Bretherton & Mellor, 2006). However Australia is proclaimed to be a //liberal democracy// (Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 2008), where all individuals have equal rights and freedoms, necessarily including those in minority groups. Therefore the only acceptable meaning of ‘reconciliation’ must be to improve the wellbeing of Indigenous Australians to the levels of non-Indigenous Australians, while also facilitating the restoration of Indigenous culture, and the integration of Indigenous culture with Western culture as Indigenous people see fit. This means that fully effective reparations must be provided to the Stolen Generations to enable true reconciliation (Lawry, 2010).

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The Bringing Them Home Report (Australian Human Rights Commission, 1997) outlined the components of reparation as follows:

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">1. acknowledgment and apology <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">2. guarantees against repetition <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">3. measures of restitution <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">4. measures of rehabilitation <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">5. monetary compensation

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">One of the most ubiquitous conclusions found in recent research is that success will only be achieved if there is Indigenous involvement (Marmot, 2011; Tonmyr & Blackstock, 2010). For example, the development and implementation of programs, policies and legislation, the development of culturally appropriate health goals, and the design of culturally meaningful research, are all dependant on real Indigenous participation if they are to be successful.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">In a more general sense, //self-determination// – the recognition that Indigenous people should have the power to determine the future of their own culture (Dockery, 2010) – is lacking. Dockery (2010) explains that, unfortunately, the idea that the maintenance of Indigenous culture is an obstacle to the goal of socioeconomic equity is pervasive. It is essentially a case of self-determination versus assimilation. Yet there is compelling evidence that indigenous peoples with a stronger attachment to their traditional culture have improved health, and scholastic and employment success. Self-determination should be recognised as a pathway to socioeconomic equity.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Despite the impact of the Bringing Them Home report in 1997 (Haebich, 2011), actions towards reparations have been slow-moving. The Howard Government refused to take the first step – acknowledgment and apology. Then Prime Minister John Howard denied the existence of the Stolen Generations, and maintained that children were taken for their own protection, and that the actions were humane by standards of the time (Haebich, 2011). It was not until 2008 that that first step was finally taken by the newly-elected Prime Minister, Kevin Rudd.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Since that historic event little has changed. One reason for this may be the conflict of interest inherent in Australia’s democratic political system. While the ruling party has a responsibility to uphold the ideals of liberal democracy, it can only do this while it is in fact ruling. Even without the insinuation of any cynicism, there is a need for political parties to strive to be popular. In order to achieve reconciliation, there needs to be a change in the thinking of white Australians. People need to be pushed out of their comfort zones, towards a new sense of what is right (Leigh, 2002). Only then can governments change policies without being punished at the next election.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">For the same reasons, it is risky for politicians themselves to challenge the public in this way. Leigh (2002) points to various people such as those from the Indigenous community, public intellectuals, historians, and popular figures in the entertainment industry, who have made contributions to changing the common way of thinking of white Australians.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Kevin Rudd’s decision to make an official apology could be seen as quite a brave move. Polls by media organisations before The Apology generally found the public to be against making an apology. However after The Apology, support for it was clearly stronger (Korff, 2013). On this occasion at least, it seems the Prime Minister was respected and was able to change common opinion to some degree.



Thousands of people around the country turn out in public places such as Federation Square to listen to The Apology. From theage.com.au.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Personal Reflections <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">I applaud Kevin Rudd’s decision to make the apology. It was a risky move but fortunately it seems to have had a positive effect on both Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians. He could have – possibly should have – gone deeper into acknowledging injustices, but it still strikes me as a significant event given the conservativeness of Australian politics. Many of the images of people watching the speech on the day were quite moving, and it was both refreshing and inspiring to see such a large amount of support for a politician doing what they “should” be doing. I think Australia is a great place to live, but it is not often that I think to myself, “I’m proud to be Australian.” However this was one of those moments.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">On the other hand, it is sad that more has not happened in terms of policy change since The Apology. The continuation of the Northern Territory Intervention is a perfect example of the apparent disregard for the findings of an increasingly large body of research.



<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">From solidarity.net.au <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">I’ve learnt a great deal about Indigenous health as I’ve researched this topic, however, more broadly, I now have a greater awareness of the importance of cultural competency and cultural safety. I have realised that while I am aware that other cultures exist, and (I think) I am accepting of other cultures, I actually know very little about them. As a future healthcare practitioner in an increasingly multicultural country, it is vital that I continue to learn about the cultures of people I may encounter. I will need to be able to work with my clients – not against them – and I will need them to feel safe and have confidence in my work if we are to achieve the best health outcomes.


 * Reflections**

http://healthcultureandsociety2013.wikispaces.com/share/view/64710966 http://healthcultureandsociety2013.wikispaces.com/share/view/64711890

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">If you're wondering just what it is that Indigenous people would like, read on below. In Koori Mail, an Indigenous newspaper, a reader writes in with a dream letter she would like to receive from the Prime Minister. Taken from page 23 of edition 492 (1st issue of 2011).



<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">References

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Attwood, B. (2001). The Stolen Generations and genocide: Robert Manne’s In denial: the Stolen Generations and the Right. Aboriginal History, 25, 163-172. Retrieved from []

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2012). The health and welfare of Australia's Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. Retrieved from http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/4704.0

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Australian Human Rights Commission. (1997). Bringing them home. Retrieved from https://www.humanrights.gov.au/publications/bringing-them-home-report-1997

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Australian Human Rights Commission. (2005). Questions and answers about Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander peoples. Retrieved from []

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Azzopardi, P. S., Kennedy, E. C., Patton, G. C., Power, R., Roseby, R. D., Sawyer, S. M., & Brown, A. D. (2013). The quality of health research for young Indigenous Australians: systematic review. Medical Journal of Australia, 199(1), 57-63. doi: 10.5694/mja12.11141

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Bretherton, D., & Mellor, D. (2006). Reconciliation between Aboriginal and other Australians: the “Stolen Generations”. Journal of Social Issues, 62(1), 81-98. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-4560.2006.00440.x

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Dafler, J. R., & Callaghan, G. (2005). Social Darwinism and the language of racial oppression: Australia's stolen generations. Et Cetera, 62(2), 137-150. Retrieved from []

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Day, A., & Francisco, A. (2013). Social and emotional wellbeing in Indigenous Australians: identifying promising interventions. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 37, 350–355. doi: 10.1111/1753-6405.12083

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. (2008). Democratic rights and freedoms. Retrieved from http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/democratic_rights_freedoms.html

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Dockery, A. M. (2010). Culture and wellbeing: the case of Indigenous Australians. Social Indicators Research, 99(2), 315-332. doi: 10.1007/s11205-010-9582-y

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Fejo-King, C. (2011). The national apology to the Stolen Generations: the ripple effect. Australian Social Work, 64(1), 130-143. doi: 10.1080/0312407X.2010.542564

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Galtung, J. (1969). Violence, peace and peace research. Journal of Peace Research, 6(3), 167-191. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/422690

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Haebich, A. (2011). Forgetting indigenous histories: cases from the history of Australia’s stolen generations. Journal of Social History, 44(4), 1033-1046. doi: 10.1353/jsh.2011.0042

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Harris, J. (2003). Hiding the bodies: the myth of the humane colonisation of Aboriginal Australia. Aboriginal History, 27, 79-104. Retrieved from []

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Korff, J. (2013). ‘Sorry’ apology to Stolen Generations. Creative Spirits. Retrieved from http://www.creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/politics/sorry-apology-to-stolen-generations

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Lawry, C. (2010). Moving beyond the apology: achieving full and effective reparations for the stolen generations. Australian Indigenous Law Review, 14(2), 83-99. Retrieved from []

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Leigh, A. K. (2002). Leadership and Aboriginal reconciliation. Australian Journal of Social Issues, 37(2), 131–151. Retrieved from []

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Marmot, M. (2011). Social determinants and the health of Indigenous Australians. Medical Journal of Australia, 194(10), 512-513. Retrieved from []

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">O’Sullivan, D. (2012). Justice, culture and the political determinants of indigenous Australian health. Ethnicities, 12(6), 687–705. doi: 10.1177/1468796811432697

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Tonmyr, L., & Blackstock, C. (2010). Commentary: Indigenous health special issue. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 8(2), 135-144. doi: 10.1007/s11469-010-9272-7