THE+ICE+AGE

“The Ice Age” Name: Ronan Cowie  Student Number: n8586055   Tutor: Jay Rodgers

//‘…the drugs don’t work, they just make it worse…’ //

Cultural Artefact

@http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yxKst8BaPbc

The Four Corners’ //Ice Age// documentary depicts a unique insight into the lives of methamphetamine and heroin addicts. Contrary to statistically based reviews and re-enacted portrayals, //The Ice Age// delves head first into the personal interactions of methamphetamine addicts of Sydney’s inner city. Journalist, Mathew Carney, follows crystal methamphetamine addict “Matty” as he reveals the challenges and implications of addiction. The journey begins with the withdrawal of government welfare payments, immediately followed by the discrete purchase of crystal methamphetamine. The events following identify the demographic of methamphetamine users and the associated public health issues as well as the turmoil of distanced family and further drug dependence.



Public Health Issue Central to Analysis

There are several public health issues deeply engrained within ‘The Ice Age’, governed by the concepts of otherness, symbolic skins, social living contexts, and economic rationalism. Understanding the incidence and prevalence of drug use in Australia is pivotal to realising the many implications of illicit drug use, being predominantly negative. Crystal methamphetamine is most likely to be used by males aged between 30 and 39 (Degenhardt & Fetherston, 2008), and is directly linked to increased psychological stress, HIV/AIDS transmission, hepatitis C, and drug related crime (Li & Gunja, 2013). These associated health risks are equally influenced by both the aforementioned concepts of symbolic skins, social living contexts and economic rationalism, in addition to the direct effects of the drugs upon the human body.

Literature Review

The use of illicit drugs in Australia, specifically methamphetamine has gradually increased over the past decade, showing little indication of recession. The following will identify the demographic of drug users through statistical analysis concurrent with trends in age groups, sub-cultural groups, and illicit drugs. The current status of methamphetamine treatment is a direct result of limited treatment alternatives and pharmaceutical methods, consequently resulting in a universal approach designed for opioid and alcohol dependency.

In order to understand the importance of addressing illicit drug use in Australia, its prevalence must first be recognised. The 2010 National Household Survey revealed that 39.8% of the population aged 14 years or older had used an illicit drug at some point in their lifetime, slightly higher than 2007 (Digiusto & Treloar, 2007). Recent illicit drug use was highest in the 20-29 year age bracket for both males and females. Regarding frequent drug use, 8.3% of the population had used an illicit drug in the last month, and a further 5.3% had done so in the last week (AIHW, 2011).

For most age groups, men are typically more likely to have recently used an illicit drug with the exception of the 14-17 year age group, where 15.% of females had recently used an illicit drug compared with 13.3% of males (AIHW, 2011). However, evidence suggests that males are almost twice as likely to smoke cannabis (Ross & Williams, 2001). Males aged between 30 and 39 were also more likely to use methamphetamine (Degenhardt, et al, 2008). This statistical evidence corresponds to the individuals observed throughout ‘The Ice Age’, as the majority of methamphetamine users depicted in the documentary are males aged between 30-39.

Research from the National Household Survey (2010) indicates that both crystal methamphetamine and cannabis use is increasing in most sub-population groups. A key reason for the increase in methamphetamine use is the ineffectiveness of treatment services. By global standards, Australia has one of the highest rates of methamphetamine use, with 3% of the population regarded as regular users. However treatment completion is particularly lower for methamphetamine addition than for other drugs used in Australia (Pennay & Lee, 2009). There are several possible explanations, including the unsuitability of withdrawal services, the potent nature of methamphetamine withdrawal, associated poly-drug use, and mental health issues (Pennay & Lee, 2009). Particular government emphasis has also resulted in priority being provided to the treatment of heroin (McKetin & Kelly, 2007). As a result, poly-drug users have instead received treatment for heroin use and have dismissed their methamphetamine addiction (McKetin & Kelly, 2007).

The increasing prevalence of methamphetamine use attracts only 9.3% of total withdrawal treatment, with a completion rate of less than 50% (Pennay & Lee, 2009). However, treatment service providers indicate that the nature of methamphetamine addicted patients characterises the most prominent barrier to effective treatment (Kenny, Harney, Lee, & Pennay, 2011). A suggested lack of knowledge and aggressiveness hinders the treatment of methamphetamine addicts, as they are often asked to leave and return after a recovery period (Pennay & Lee, 2009). The psychological effects of methamphetamine are not entirely understood and as a result, both addicts and service providers have struggled to reach successful treatment. A lack of pharmaceutical alternatives and readily available medical professionals further hinders addicts from seeking assistance, instead causing frustration and a sense of exclusion (Pennay & Lee, 2009).

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The concept of ‘otherness’ also applies to the sociocultural demographic associated with methamphetamine addiction. Barriers to effective treatment availability and affordability of methamphetamine typically results in use from individuals of low socioeconomic population groups. However methamphetamine use is not reserved exclusively for low earning sub-population groups, as it is used recreationally by a vast array of cultural assemblies (Gong, Ritter, Bright, & Doran, 2012). Notably, higher use of illicit drugs, particularly methamphetamine within recreational contexts is associated with homosexual and bisexual populations (Digiusto & Treloar, 2007). According to AIHW (2010), ecstasy and methamphetamine use was highest amongst homosexual and bisexual men, with 5% of the sub-population group reporting injecting drug use in the previous 6 months (Lea, et al2013). Barriers for these social groups exist in the stigmatisation of injecting drug use, the fear of losing full time employment, and perceptions of treatment effectiveness (Kenny, et al, 2011).

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The methods predominantly used to review illicit drug use, specifically methamphetamines, are conducted through the analysis of treatment methods. Although this information provides the opportunity for examination of effective and ineffective methods of treatment, it does not provide an accurate means of examining the demographic of drug users nationally. Despite various trials of pharmaceutical, psychological, and behavioral methods of psycho-stimulant treatment, none have been proven to be specifically effective in treating methamphetamine dependence (McKetin, et al, 2012). Consequently, current treatment methods in Australia are predominantly universal counselling services, generally tailored towards opioid and alcohol dependence (McKetin, et al, 2012). Until pharmacological means are established beyond the trial phase, the current universal method to methamphetamine treatment will remain, leaving desperate addicts few alternatives.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Cultural and Social Analysis

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Understanding the society and culture of illicit drug use enables one to realise the demographic of drug users and the likely health outcomes associated with illicit drug dependency. Several social theories can be applied to the use of methamphetamines, including ‘otherness’, social living contexts, and economic rationalism. The inequality of drug dependence therapy and the specific social groups affected by methamphetamines creates the need for public health experts to focus upon improving treatment methods.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">There is an increasing prevalence of injecting drug use, particularly in the gay and bisexual sub-cultures. The social theory of otherness strongly ties in with both the existence of discrimination towards those of non-heterosexual orientation and the statistical imbalance of injecting drug use. During 2011, 5% of homosexual and bisexual men reported injecting drugs compared with only 0.6% of heterosexual men (Lea, et al, 2013). From both subcultures, there has developed a notion of ‘otherness’, in which the homosexual minority are forced to not only disguise their sexuality, but to mask their use of illicit drugs for recreational purposes in order to maintain employment. The public health issue in this circumstance is of mental illness and the accumulative risk of HIV/AIDS. For both cultures, awareness and understanding are the critical methods of treatment required to improve population health and reduce psychological stress. Lea and Holt (2013) suggest that an insignificant number of the LGBTIQ population are dependent upon illicit drugs and support the notion of an alternate, targeted approach to illicit drug use.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">However, social living contexts highly influence the likelihood of an individual becoming dependent on illicit drugs. Those from disadvantaged socioeconomic circumstances have an increased likelihood of injecting drug use, which is further associated with unemployment. As illustrated in ‘The Ice Age’ documentary, the cost of feeding methamphetamine addiction leaves limited finances for investment and healthy eating. Instead addicts become nomadic, without reliable income beyond government welfare payments, causing an inequality in the potential treatment for drug dependency. This becomes a cultural ‘norm’ for the community of illicit drug users, who support one another with little positive external influence. Public health experts must consider the broad scope of public health issues associated with social living contexts in order to solve the problem of drug dependency, as purely treating addiction in these circumstances is an ineffective means.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The constant shifting in power between Labor and Liberal governments in Australia results in extended periods of economic rationalism to a small degree. However, this poses a threat to ongoing solutions for illicit drug dependency, as a high percentage of addicts emerge from or merge into low socioeconomic status. Although there remains some economic balance between governmental changes, government funded programs become restricted in their ability to provide holistic treatment to complex dependency, particularly in the instance of methamphetamines. It is important to consider these imbalances through the concept of social theory to both raise awareness of an increasing prevalence in drug use and the sub-population groups suffering the ramifications of these inequalities in public healthcare.



<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Analysis of Artefact and Learning Reflections

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The Four Corners’ //Ice Age// documentary provides a unique portrayal of methamphetamine users in the inner suburbs of Sydney, with an insight into the financial and psychological instability associated with chronic addiction. The documentary represents an individual who statistically resembles a primary candidate for addiction; male aged 30-39 and living in a low socioeconomic community. Although treatment was briefly discussed, a lack of confidence both personally and within established methods has resulted in reluctance to accessing treatment. This aligns with the nation-wide need for a definitive treatment method, as currently established interventions are designed for opioid and alcohol dependency. For this reason it is necessary for public health mediation in order to provide complete and targeted treatment to assist methamphetamine dependents.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">My research particularly surrounding the use of methamphetamine within these social contexts has impacted the way in which I perceive the nature of addiction resulting in a renewed understanding of current universal treatment methods. The attitude with which I had previously held towards methamphetamine dependent individuals disregarded the consideration of factors contributing to their addiction. From this study, I believe that my interactions and perceptions of people engaging in illicit drug use will instead acknowledge the various aspects of addiction. It is evident from both my research and the Four Corners documentary that a targeted approach to methamphetamine is necessary in order to properly treat addiction, and must indiscriminately integrate the possibility of a range of sociocultural and socioeconomic backgrounds.

Reflection http://healthcultureandsociety2013.wikispaces.com/Australian+Adolescents+and+the+Normalisation+of+Illicit+Drugs http://healthcultureandsociety2013.wikispaces.com/page/messages/Does+meat+make+men+more+masculine%3F <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: center;">References

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Australian Government, Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2011). //National Drug Strategy Household Survey Report 2010//. Retrieved from Australian Institute of Health and Welfare website http://www.aihw.gov.au/publication-detail/?id=32212254712

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Catto, M., & Thomson, N. (2008). Summary of indigenous health: Illicit drug use. //Aboriginal and Islander Health Worker Journal, 32//(5), 7-10.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Deacon, R.,., Mooney <span style="font-family: 'Cambria Math','serif'; font-size: 16px;">‐ <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Somers, J., Treloar, C., & Maher, L. (2013). At the intersection of marginalised identities: Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people's experiences of injecting drug use and hepatitis C seroconversion. //Health & Social Care in the Community, 21//(4), 402-410. doi:10.1111/hsc.12026

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Degenhardt, L., Roxburgh, A., Black, E., Bruno, R., Campbell, G., Kinner, S., & Fetherston, J. (2008). The epidemiology of methamphetamine use and harm in Australia. //Drug and Alcohol Review, 27//(3), 243-243. doi:10.1080/09595230801950572

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Digiusto, E., & Treloar, C. (2007). Equity of access to treatment, and barriers to treatment for illicit drug use in Australia. //Addiction, 102//(6), 958-958. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2007.01842.x

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Dwyer, R., & Moore, D. (2010). Understanding illicit drug markets in Australia. //The British Journal of Criminology, 50//(1), 82

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Gong, W., Ritter, A., Bright, D., & Doran, C. (2012). How profitable is methamphetamine dealing in Australia? //Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 122//(3), 208. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.09.028

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Kenny, P., Harney, A., Lee, N.,, & Pennay, A. (2011). Treatment utilization and barriers to treatment: Results of a survey of dependent methamphetamine users. //Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy, 6//(1), 3-3. doi:10.1186/1747-597X-6-3

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Lea, T., Mao, L., Bath, N., Prestage, G., Zablotska, I., de Wit, J., & Holt, M. (2013). Injecting drug use among gay and bisexual men in Sydney: Prevalence and associations with sexual risk practices and HIV and hepatitis C infection. //AIDS and Behavior, 17//(4), 1344-1351. doi:10.1007/s10461-013-0409-0

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Li, W., & Gunja, N. (2013). Illicit drug overdose--prevalence and acute management. //Australian Family Physician, 42//(7), 481-485.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">McKetin, R., & Kelly, E. (2007). Socio-demographic factors associated with methamphetamine treatment contact among dependent methamphetamine users in Sydney. (2007). //Drug and Alcohol Review, 26//(2), 161

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">McKetin, R., Najman, J.,, Baker, A., Lubman, D., Dawe, S., Ali, R.,. Mamun, A. (2012). Evaluating the impact of community-based treatment options on methamphetamine use: Findings from the methamphetamine treatment evaluation study (MATES). //Addiction, 107//(11), 1998-2008. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2012.03933.x

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Moore, T. (2008). The size and mix of government spending on illicit drug policy in Australia. //Drug and Alcohol Review, 27//(4), 404-404. doi:10.1080/09595230802093737

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Pennay, A.,, & Lee, N.. (2009). Barriers to methamphetamine withdrawal treatment in Australia: Findings from a survey of AOD service providers. //Drug and Alcohol Review, 28//(6), 636

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Ross, M., & Williams, M.. (2001). Sexual Behavior and Illicit Drug Use. //Annual Review of Sex Research, 12//(issue number), 290