Rape+myth+acceptance+and+victim+blaming+in+today’s+society,+and+the+importance+of+education

Tamara Kenny n8546649 Tutor: Dr Mangalam Sankupellay

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**//__1.Topic __//**
From ‘Condoms on Bananas’ to Negotiating Consent: Educating around safety and desire in human sexual relationships

**__//2. Artefact //__**
The artefact is a media article titled ‘Advocating Risk Management is not “victim blaming”’ which was written by Sarrah Le Marquand. I located this article online on The Punch – Australia’s Best Conversation website, which provides world news and political opinion. This article discusses the blaming of sexual assault victims by society, stating that in a world where there are still people who believe that victims of sexual assault were ‘asking for it’, the discussion of risk is taboo, and therefore education relating to risk is lacking. The rights of women are also discussed, to live life as they wish, and to access information to reduce the likelihood of becoming a victim of sexual assault.

**__//3. Public Health Issue //__**
The issue is sexual assault, within which victim blaming is the focus. “Sexual assault includes acts of a sexual nature carried out against a person’s will through the use of physical force, intimidation or coercion, or any attempts to do this” (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2005, p.5). Sexual assault is one of the most underreported crimes in Australia, with only 31% of victims having reported in 2012 (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2012). The prevalence of victim blaming in society contributes to reluctance of victims to report sexual assault to police (Olszewski, 2009). Sexual assault has short and long term implications for victims, impacting on all aspects of their lives including emotional, mental and physical health, social relationships, schooling and employment, as well as costs to the community in treating victims and providing justice (Better Health Channel, 2013), with the impact of these increased with victim blaming. Victim blaming also contributes to lack of risk management, as stated in the artefact article. It is therefore important that sexual assault and related issues are addressed.

__//**4. Literature Review **//__
The purpose of this literature review is to identify knowledge on the topic of sexual assault, and in particular, victim blaming. Sexual assault is an act which asserts power, anger and dominance over another person and is one of the most underreported crimes in society (Sahu et al., 2005), partly due to rape myths and victim blaming, which will be the main focus of this literature review.

Sexual assault is an example of gender based violence, the world’s greatest human rights issue and violates a woman’s feelings of safety and control as well as her integrity (Sahu et al., 2005). Worldwide, respect for women is declining and whilst it has always been prevalent in society, sexual assault is steadily increasing (Sahu et al., 2005). Both men and women can be victims of sexual assault, however it is predominantly males against females, consistent with feminist theory which focuses on gender inequality and suggests that tolerance of aggression against women is led to by the acceptance of patriarchy and male dominance in society (Suarez & Gadalla, 2010). Due to societal gender role expectations, it is believed that men should be able to defend themselves, and it is therefore difficult for society to believe that they can in fact be victims of sexual assault (Shechory & Ydisis, 2006). In Australia in 2012, the victimisation rate for sexual assault was 80 victims per 100, 000 persons, and 83% of victims were female (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2012). In 2005, 1.3% of women and 0.6% of men reported experiencing sexual assault in the previous 12 months (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2005). The literature has also revealed other groups in society which are at greater risk. These include Indigenous Australians, men and women with a mental impairment, men in correctional institutions, sex workers and gay, lesbian and transgender men and women (Cook, David, & Grant, 2001). A study aiming to identify at risk groups found that most victims were unmarried, unemployed, less educated, mentally fit, and living in rural areas (Sahu et al., 2005). Other vulnerable groups reported include adolescents, survivors of childhood abuse, persons who are disabled, persons with substance abuse problems, and persons who are poor, homeless, or living in areas of military conflict (Do, Schrager, & Gilchrist, 2010).

The literature identifies short and long term implications of sexual assault for victims. As mentioned above, all aspects of their lives are impacted upon, including emotional, mental and physical health, social relationships, schooling and employment (Better Health Channel, 2013). Post traumatic stress disorder, depression, anxiety, substance abuse, and self-destructive behaviours can occur following sexual assault, and are contributed to by victim blaming (Do et al., 2010).

In recent years, it has been argued in scientific literature that a focus on the virtues or vulnerability of the victim draws attention away from perpetrators of sexual assault which deters women from reporting (Olszewski, 2009). Studies have shown that reasons for victims failing to report sexual assault to police include fear that they will not be believed, and that they might be blamed for the act. Non supportive reactions or blaming not only from the victim’s social network but also from legal services, police and health care providers discourage reporting (Suarez & Gadalla, 2010). Victim blaming can focus on the character and behaviour of the victim, however blame is mostly behavioural (Sleath & Bull, 2009). Societal attitudes are demonstrated in studies including a telephone survey of 1000 people in the UK in which the opinion that victims are partly responsible for their rape by their mode of dress and behaviour including excessive alcohol use was held by a significant portion of participants (Olzewski, 2009). A survey in Canada of 280 university students found that when a victim had voluntarily taken drugs before their assault, they were assigned a higher level of blame, and perpetrator responsibility was reduced (Olzewski, 2009).

Within the literature, it has been established that female victims of acquaintance rape are held more responsible for their assault than victims of stranger rape (Sleath & Bull, 2009). Stereotyping and victim blaming in society are widely recognised as barriers to reporting sexual assault (Olszewski, 2009) as mentioned above, and these negative reactions can be attributed to rape myths, which are false beliefs used to shift the blame from perpetrators to victims, and explain the sociocultural context of such reactions (Suarez & Gadalla, 2010). A meta-analysis found that men endorsed rape myths more than women, and rape myth acceptance was associated with hostile attitudes and behaviours towards women, which supports the feminist view that sexism contributes to the sustainment of rape myth acceptance (Suarez & Gadalla, 2010, p. 2010). Shechory and Idisis (2006, p. 651) state “It seems that three decades after the first studies of rape myths, prejudices and stereotypes concerning rape and rape victims still exist”, highlighting the importance of this issue.

Do et al (2010) believe that prevention of sexual assault is societal and education should be the focus. Olszewski (2009) also has this belief, conveying that campaigns warning of the risks are important in addressing the issue of sexual assault. Her article also states however, that it has been argued that campaigns targeting women to educate them on modifying their behaviour in order to reduce risk implies that male responsibility is relinquished, which can be seen as allowing sexual assault to continue, as conveyed in the artefact article.

Methodology used by researchers is primarily surveys, which have limitations including honesty and accuracy of data, and the possibility that participants are not representative of the broader society. They do however provide good insights into the experiences and attitudes of participants. From a review of the literature, it can be concluded that in order to lessen the emotional and mental impacts for victims, increase reporting, bring perpetrators to justice, and promote education and risk management, victim blaming needs to stop.

__//**5. Cultural and Social Analysis **//__
Feminist theory suggests that sexual assault is a crime of power in a society that is dominated by men, and is a result of unequal power between perpetrator and victim (commonly man and woman), rejecting the idea that rape is motivated by sexual attraction and desire or caused by the way victims behave or dress (Yarrow Place, 2010). This is important to consider in understanding this issue. The feminist movement in the 1970s saw issues including rape become located in a political and societal context rather than being a personal issue, however it is seldom talked about in society, and victims are reluctant to discuss or report sexual assault due to fear of blame (Yarrow Place, 2010).

Society’s acceptance of rape myths and attribution of blame to rape victims can in part be explained by Melvin Lerner’s Just World theory, which maintains the idea that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get (Shechory & Ydisis, 2006). Blaming the victim reduces people’s perceived chances of becoming a victim, preserving the idea that control can be exercised over events such as sexual assault, in a safe and secure world (Shechory & Ydisis, 2006). It is important to consider and understand why people in society think the way that they do, in order to develop effective strategies to address the issue.

People are not affected by sexual assault equally in society, with some social and cultural groups more vulnerable, as identified in the literature review. As well as women, these include Indigenous Australians, men and women with a mental impairment, men in correctional institutions, sex workers, gay, lesbian and transgender men and women (Cook et al., 2001), children and adolescents, survivors of childhood abuse, persons who are disabled, persons with substance abuse problems, and persons with a low socioeconomic status (Do et al., 2010). Sexual assault has short and long term health implications for victims as identified above. Not only is their physical health affected, but mental health effects also occur and can be long lasting, and include post traumatic stress disorder, depression, anxiety, and self destructive behaviours (Do et al., 2010).

Awareness of this issue is important, as sexual assault is prevalent and affects many people in society, including victims, their family and friends. While it is not discussed in society, it should be. Society needs to be aware of the facts, and those at greater risk need to be aware of what they could do to possibly protect themselves from becoming a victim. Whilst this is seen by some as a form of victim blaming, as highlighted in the artefact article, it is necessary to give people the right to access this information and knowledge. Public health experts should focus on education, as discussed by Do et al (2010). Safety and support programs have been effective in decreasing sexual assaults (Do et al, 2010), and Olszewski (2009) states that campaigns warning of the risks of becoming a sexual assault victim or perpetrator by excessive alcohol or drug use are an important step in addressing the issue. Not only is education required in prevention, but also regarding myths, to help decrease victim blaming and increase reporting rates and delivery of justice.

__//**6. Analysis of the Artefact and Learning Reflections **//__
The artefact I have chosen conveys the contribution of societal blaming of sexual assault victims to lack of risk management. It includes a picture of a young woman dressed in a skirt and heels, in the company of a male, outside what is presumably a nightlife precinct, who may potentially become a victim. This picture represents such behaviours of sexual assault victims (e.g. the way they dress, consumption of alcohol) that society’s blame is attributed to. The article states that in Australia every woman has the right to drink, enjoy herself and stay out late as she chooses, and these circumstances should not be used to shift blame from perpetrator to victim, as well as the right to access information that may reduce the risk of becoming a victim. Personally, I agree with this article, and believe that every woman has a right to feel safe and live life as she chooses, and whilst society should be taught not to rape rather than not be a victim, if there are means of decreasing a woman's chances of becoming a victim of sexual assault, then she has a right to be aware of these. Victim blaming should not stop any woman from being able to access such knowledge, or from feeling comfortable enough to report such an act to police if she is unfortunate enough to become a victim. From completing this assessment piece, I have developed knowledge on a controversial topic that I previously didn’t know much about. This assessment has taught me to think more deeply and critically about issues that are prevalent in our society, how they affect particular groups, and what needs to be done to address these issues. I believe this will assist me in future learning and thinking processes.

Image from artefact article

References Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2012).//Crime Victimisation, Australia, 2011-12.// Retrieved October 5, 2013, from [|http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats /abs@.nsf/Lookup/0870E211E4EA0A39CA257B16000E0645] ?opendocument

Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2005). //Personal safety, Australia, 2005.// Retrieved October 5, 2013, from []

Better Health Channel. (2013). Sexual assault. Retrieved October 5, 2013, from []

Cook, B., David, F., & Grant, A. (2001). //Sexual Violence in Australia.// Canberra, ACT: Australian Institute of Criminology.

Do, H.L., Schrager, S., & Gilchrist, V. (2010). Sexual assault of women. //American Family Physician, 81//(4), 489-495. Retrieved from [|www.aafp.org/afp]

Olszewski, D. (2009). Sexual assaults facilitated by drugs or alcohol. //Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, 16//(1), 39-52. doi: 10.1080/09687630802128756

Sahu, G., Mohanty, S., & Dash, J.K. (2005). Vulnerable victims of sexual assault. //Medicine, Science and the Law//, //45//(3), 256-260. doi: 10.1258/rsmmsl.45.3.256

Shechory, M., & Idisis, Y. (2006). Rape myths and social distance toward sex offenders and victims among therapists and students. //Sex Roles, 54//(9), 651-658. doi: 10.1007/s11199-006-9031-1

Sleath, E., & Bull, R. (2009). Male rape victim and perpetrator blaming. //Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25//(6), 969-988. doi: 10.1177/0886260509340534

Suarez, E., & Gadalla, T.M. (2010). Stop blaming the victim: a meta-analysis on rape myths. //Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25//(11), 2010-2035. doi: 10.1177/0886260509354503

Yarrow Place. (2010). The context of rape and sexual assault. Retrieved October 8, 2013, from http://www.yarrowplace.sa.gov.au/booklet_context.html

__**//9. Reflection //**__
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