STEAK+AND+SALAD+OR+BANGERS+AND+MASH?++THE+RELATIONSHIP+BETWEEN+MEAT+AND++IDENTITY+IN+AUSTRALIA

** (8840865) **
 * Kassandra Brown **
 * Michelle Cornford **


 * // Cultural Artefact //**

1. http://www.mla.com.au/Marketing-beef-andt -lamb/Domestic-marketing/Lamb-campaigns 2. [] 3. []

The above collage of images has been selected as a cultural artefact in order to demonstrate the equivocal link between meat and culture, gender, and class. Image One (numbered clockwise from the top left) was taken from the Meat and Livestock Australia’s autumn 2013 Lamb Roast campaign depicting a masculine biker displaying motherly characteristics due to cooking a traditional lamb roast. Image Two is a creation by artist Ashkan Honarvar encapsulating the darker side of human nature and its complex relationship with meat and the search for identity. Finally, Image Three captures an Australia Day celebrating reflecting the central role of meat in Australian culture and identity.

**// Public Health Issue //**

The prevalence of overweight and obesity has been steadily increasing in Australia and is now above sixty percent for adults and twenty-five percent for children (ABS 2012). As such, most of the burden of disease in Australia is due to suboptimal nutrition (NHMRC, 2013a, p.1). Diet-related chronic diseases include diabetes, cancer, and cardiovascular disease (CVD). Not only are these disease the leading causes of disease burden, but are also the leading causes of death and have somewhat been linked to the consumption of meat. In 2012-13, Australians consumed an average of 113kgof meat per capita (Langley, 2013). In order to combat overconsumption and associated ill-health and promote and promote healthy dietary patterns, the National Health and Medical ResearchCouncil (NHMRC) published the Australian Dietary Guidelines (ADG) in February 2013. However, the success of the ADG is undermined by the failure to address one major barrier – the relationship between food and identity.

**// Literature Review //** Three in five adults and one in four children in Australia are classed as overweight or obese (AIHW, 2013). From 1995 to 2012, the average adult’s weight has increase by approximately four kilograms (ABS, 2012). This burden of disease is only beaten by smoking and high blood pressure (AIHW, 2013). Furthermore, obesity prevalence is higher among the socioeconomically disadvantaged (NHMRC, 2013b). In an attempt to modify consumption behaviour and the ensuing burden of disease, the NHMRC (2013a, p. 1) states that the ADG “summrise the evidence underlying food, diet, and health relationships that improve public heath outcomes. In relation to meat, it recommends the average adult consume one to three serves per day from the lean meats group (NHMRC, 2013a, p. 53). Although meat is often negatively associated with images of ill-health, it is an essential component of a healthy diet and a source of important micronutrients such as iron, selenium, vitamins A and B12, and folic acid – all of which are important for human health and development (Biesalski, 2005, p. 510). Nonetheless, cooked lean red meat consumption should not exceed 455g per week as it is associated with a purported increased risk of cancer (NHMRC 2013a, p. 52).

In opposition to meat consumption, movements such as Meatless Mondays and vegetarianism seem to be increasing in popularity, whether it be for ethical or health reasons. The ADG also offers advice for planning a balanced vegetarian diet (NHMRC 2013a, p.60) and proponents for vegetarianism frequently cite the ability to meet daily micronutrient recommendations through plant-based foods and decreased risk of chronic diseases as evidence of the positive benefits of adopting the lifestyle. Benefits may include a reduction in mortality from CVD, lower cholesterol and triglyceride levels, and reduced incidences of hypertension (McEvor, Temple, and Woodside, 2012, p. 2288).

As the health and ethical arguments for vegetarianism are becoming increasingly visible, many of the meat-eating public have become sympathetic to the cause (Rothgerber, 2012, p.1). Yet, there is only an estimated three percent (3%) of self-identifying vegetarians in Australia (Rothgerber, 2012, p.1) suggesting that there is something greater driving the desire to consumer meat.

There have been numerous cross-sectional and longitudinal studies conducted into the motivations for meat consumption and avoidance and eating identity (Beardsworth and Bryman 2004; Blake et al., 2013). However, they only address the superficial motivations and fail to identify “the relationship between eating identity and the affinity for particular foods, food groups, or eating patterns (Blake et al., 2013, p. 20).” In short, the studies identify how people make their food selections but not why they do. This is not to mention the fact that while there is evidence to suggest a link between meat consumption and cancer, the findings are still inconclusive (NHMRC 2013a, p. 52). Likewise, it is difficult to determine if the health benefits of vegetarianism are linked to the absence or presence of certain food groups and lifestyle components (McEvoy, Temple, and Woodside, 2012, p. 2287).

The importance of the ADG cannot be underestimated. Nevertheless, the ADG only acknowledges the importance of the lean meats food group to Australian cuisine, culture, and lifestyle and does little to identify the underlying motivations of dietary behaviour (NHMRC 2013a, p. 48). This limits its efficacy as without identifying motivations, appropriate interventions that lead to long-term dietary behaviour change and improved health outcomes cannot me implemented. For example, according to the ADG, Australian men must reduce their red meat intake by twenty- percent (20%) in order to meet current intake recommendations (NHMRC 2013a, p.54). Furthermore, men consume 200g of meat daily while women only consume 120g despite the intake requirements being roughly the same (NHMRC 2013a, p.52). Without determining food pattern influences, it is difficult to know the willingness of Australians to consume a more plant-based diet (Schosler, de Boer, and Boersema, 2012, p. 39).

The aforementioned motivations for meat consumption can be broadly discussed in terms of the rising importance of meat in regards to identity construction. Food choice has emerged as a means by which personal and philosophical commitments can be expressed (Fox and Ward, 2008, p. 2586). One case in point is the emergence of the phenomenon called “vegansexuality.” Vegansexuality is a preferential sexual practice of vegans and vegetarians, predicated on a strong sexual aversion to those who consume meat and other animal products (Potts and Parry, 2010, p. 53). The movement gained credence as it challenged the heteronormative notion of masculinity equating to meat consumption. Many social scientists and feminists argue that meat consumption is cultural and associated with the expression of male identity (Adams 1990; Beardsworth and Bryman, 2004) and the construction of sexism (Rudy, 2012). For example, Beardsworth and Bryman (2012, p. 316) in their eleven-year longitudinal study found that women were more concerned with ethical and health issues relating to food and were more likely to be vegetarian. Meat-eating on the other hand has been linked to manhood, power, and virility and as such, vegetarianism is effeminate and unmanly (Rothgerber, 2012, p.2). To challenge meat consumption is said to challenge the essences of manhood. To change consumption patters, persuasive attempts framing healthier plant-based choices congruent with masculine ideology (Rothgerber, 2012).

**// Cultural and Social Analysis //** media type="youtube" key="5BB_u2k2gmY" width="560" height="315" align="center"

Australia Day 2013 "Lambnesia" http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5BB_u2k2gmY The high consumption of meat and increasing ill-health of affluent western nations in particular has become a highly debated topic. However, due to the popularity of meat, for dietary patterns to be influenced and the ADG to be effectively implemented, profound societal change will be necessary (Schosler, de Boer, ad Boersema, 2012, p. 39). In order to do this, consumer motivations must first be understood, as a failure to do so will result in a continuing increase in obesity and the burden of disease. The motivations behind meat consumption and its pivotal role in identity construction are best understood through the principles of social constructionism as it suggests that social norms are established through our interactions. As behaviours spread through the group, they become instituionalised and eventually become habitualised; they become the standard by which all members are expected to prescribe to. This is particularly reflected through the use of meat to create social class distinctions and Australian identity.

Throughout history the consumption of meat has been used to signify social distinctions such as wealth and status (Schosler, de Boer, ad Boersema, 2012, p. 40). In primitive times, the caveman gained status by demonstrating his ability to catch animals for food in order to feed and clothe his family. Those incapable of doing so would soon starve and perish. Furthermore, from this hunter-gatherer society, the idea of a meal containing meat and grew. In the Australian context, the system of rules concerning what constitutes a meal grew from cultural heritage as a colony. In England, vegetables were seen as something that could be grown by oneself, but meat was not. As such, it was given a luxurious value and prestigious status (Ting, 2013). During the colonisation period, meat became more readily available and heavily consumed (Ting, 2013) and a symbol of Australian identity and hence, Australia Day is celebrated with the traditional barbecue and the overconsumption of meat. In modern society, meat is a universally prized commodity and as levels of affluence rise, so too does the level of meat consumption (Smil, 2002, p.307; Beardsworth and Bryman, 2004, p.313). Moreover, social class distinction is still entrenched in the selection of meat. Socially constructed stereotypical images of class and meat are as follows: gourmet steak and salad for the upper-class, bangers and mash for the middle-class blue collar worker, and meat pies with tomato sauce for the tradesmen and socioeconomically disadvantaged groups.



Gender and gender roles are socially constructed notions which affect behaviour and ultimately health. In Australia, this chiefly revolves around men’s health and the status of women. Firstly, meat is masculine while fruit and vegetables are feminine. Men were the hunters and consumers of meat while women were the gatherers of fruit and vegetables and the preparers of meat. Meat is a signifier of normative masculinity and in Australia hunting and meat consumption are even used as a means of uniting men in men’s ministries and outreach programs (Gelfer, 2013). Women on the other hand were, and still are, expected to sympathise more with the plight of animals and consume less meat and more feminine meals such as salads (Rothgerber, 2012, p.4). These stereotypes have lead to dietary behaviours which affect health outcomes. For example Australian men have a life expectancy of 79.9 years and an overweight and obesity prevalence of 68% as opposed to 84.2 years and 55% or women (ABS 2012). Men are also more likely than women to die from cancer and ischemic heart disease. Finally, meat has played a role in developing sexism. That is, in Australia traditional gender roles include men barbecuing meat (see Image Three) and women preparing salads and the mother preparing lamb roasts for the family, for the father in particular to enjoy (alluded to in Image One).

The status of meat is engrained in Australian society and without identifying its historical roots it is difficult to understand consumer behaviour and more importantly, how to alter dietary behaviour to address the obesity epidemic and promote healthy lifestyles. Women must not be afraid of consuming meat for fear of judgment for not being feminine enough and men must reframe the image that fruit and vegetables are not feminine but in fact, are a part of a healthy diet. Redressing gender roles of men barbecuing and women preparing salads or mothers cooking roast is also necessary in order to reduce sexism and promote health. Increasing food security and removing socioeconomic barriers to health food choices is another area for consideration. Without addressing these underlying issues, Australia’s health will continue to decline and disparities in health outcomes will continue to increase. media type="youtube" key="b_VIu56Hqo0" width="560" height="315" Easy Roast Lamb   []

**// Artefact Analysis and Learning Reflections //**

As a nutrition and dietetics student, I have a keen interest in the relationship between food behaviour and health outcomes. I am acutely aware of the negative impact of poor food choices on human health such as obesity, increased health risks, and poor athletic performance. However, I had only ever viewed food as a nutrient for fuelling the body and while I follow a mostly Paleolithic diet and lifestyle, I never viewed food, and in particular meat, as forming my identity or socially constructed gender roles. In Image One of the artefact collage, I was almost shocked not by the subversive message that the average Australian, especially the “manly” man, should eat meat, but that this traditional value should be preserved through the engendered role of a woman. We also have conflicting behaviours of a government attempting to reduce meat consumption through the ADG and an affiliated government body encouraging meat consumption by playing on traditional family values and stereotypical gender models.

I found Image Two of a woman depicted as a piece of meat to be quite confronting. Firstly, I viewed it merely as a representation of the saying, ‘you are what you eat.’ However, after further reflection I believe that the piece represents human’s inner conflict with the desire to consume meat while also being of the flesh. Furthermore, when juxtaposed with Image One, it further reinforces the gender perception of men as meat-eaters and women as flesh providing services to be consumed.

Finally, Image Three reinforces my conceptualisation of Australian culture being one established around the barbecue. However, after much thought I can appreciate how such an image is one of socially constructed stereotypes reflecting class divides and social determinants of poor health outcomes.

On balance, while my research into meat, its consumption, and associated health consequences has not altered my own dietary behaviour. However, the artefact collage has shown me how naive I can be and that seemingly benign images are tainted with subversive messages that in the long-term have a detrimental impact on my health.

**// References //** Adams, C J. (1990). The sexual politics of meat: A feminist-vegetarian critical theory. New York: Continuum.

Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2012) 4364.0.55.001 - Australian Health Survey: First Results, 2011-12. Retrieved from []

Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2013). Overweight and Obesity. Retrieved from http://www.aihw.gov.au/overweight-and-obesity/

Beardsworth, A., & Bryman, A. (2004). Meat consumption and meat avoidance among young people – An 11-year longitudinal study. //British Food Journal//, 106(4), 313-327. doi: 10.118/00070700410529573

Biesalski, H. (2005). Meat as a component of a healthy diet – are there any risks or benefits if meat is avoided in the diet? //Meat Science, 70//, 509-524. Doi: 10.1016/j.meatsvi.2004.07.017

Blake, C., Bell, A., Freedman, D., Colabianchi, N., & Liese, A. (2013). The eating identity type inventory (ETII). Development and associations with diet. //Appetite, 69//, 15-22. Doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2013.05.008

Fox, N., & Ward, K. J. (2008). You are what you eat? Vegetarianism, health, and identity. //Social Science & Medicine, 66//, 2585-2595.

Gelfer, J. Meat and masculinity in men’s ministries. //Journal of Men’s Studies, 21//(1), 78-91. Retrieved from http://gateway.library.qut.edu.au/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.exp01.library.qut.edu.ar/docview/131392062?accountid+13380//

// Langley, S. (2013). Chicken meat the most popular meat in Australian diet, new trends for other meats. //Australian Food News//. Retrieved from// // [] //

// McEvoy, C., Norman, T., & Woodside, J. (2012). Vegetarian diets, low-meat diets and health: a review. //Public Health Nutrition//, 15, (12), 2287-2294. doi: 10.1017/S1368980012000936//

// National Health and Medical Research Council. (2013a). Eat for Health – Australian Dietary Guidelines. Retrieved from National Health and Medical Research Council website, http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/_files_nhmrc/publications/attachments/n55_australian_dietary_guidelines_0.pdf //

// National Health and Medical Research Council. (2013b). Overweight and Obesity. Retrieved from [] //

// Potts, A, & Parry, J. (2010). Vegan Sexuality: Challenging heteronormative masculinity through meat-free sex. //Feminism and Psychology//,// 20//(1), 53-72,// // Doi: 10.1177/0959353509351181 //

// Rothgerber, H. (2012). Real men don’t eat (vegetable) quiche: masculinity and the justification of meat consumption. //Psychology of Men and Masculinity//. Doi: 10.1037/a0030379//

// Rudy, K. (2012). Locavores, feminism, and the questions of meat. //The Journal of American Culture, 35//(1), 26-36. Retrieved from http://gateway.library.qut.edu.au/login?url=http://search,proquest.com/docview/1008665782?accountid=13380

Schosler, H., de Boer, J., & Boersema, J. (2012). Can we cut out the meat of the dish? Constructing consumer-oriented pathways towards meat substitution. //Appetite, 58//, 39-47. Doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2011.09.009

Smil, V. (2002). Worldwide transformation of diets, burdens of meat production and opportunities for novel food proteins. //Enzyme and Microbial Technology//, //30//, 305-311.

Ting, I. (2013, April 16). Hold the red, pass the white – meat that is. //The Sydney Morning Herald.// Retrieve from http://www.smh.com.au/national/hold-the-red-pass-the-white--meat-that-is-20130415-2hvv6.html

**// Reflection (Learning Engagement) //** __ Factory Farming - The Real Cost: __ http://healthcultureandsociety2013.wikispaces.com/share/view/64697168

__ The Beginning of the end - Transgender discrimination: __ http://healthcultureandsociety2013.wikispaces.com/share/view/64697286