Gender+Inequality


 * Ruolan Zheng**
 * Student Number: 08726213**
 * Tutor: Michelle Cornford**

Artefact
// Footrace // ====The image above demonstrates a footrace between a man and a woman. Although they are both standing behind the “starting line” which suggests being at the same starting point, it is clear that one of the woman’s feet is shackled with a heavy metal chain. However, followed by the sound of “snap” the chain is cut off by pincers which is inscribed with “Equality of Opportunity”. We can see the smile on the woman’s face which symbolises a successful step of the development of gender equality and women's rights, hence promoting health in all human beings. ====

Public Health Issue
====This artefact reveals the issue of gender inequality in society which has a significant impact on women. Inequality is observable in various fields including education, occupation, social support and participation in politics. This has detrimental effects on women’s health in areas such as reproductive health, maternal health and also mental health. Currently, “Promote gender equality and empower women” is the third Millennium Development Goal of World Health Organization (WHO). Achieving gender equality is important for improving health in women and girls, even the whole population, therefore it has to be taken into consideration. This page will discuss the impact of gender discrimination of women in education, workplace and the related health issues. Furthermore, it will focus on the importance of addressing the gender inequality as well as the trends of this situation. ====

Literature Review
====Bernat (2007) discusses that women have been socially and culturally constrained by law during various historical periods. Most legislation is based on the natural differentiation between the sexes which views women as biologically inferior. In 1920, women achieved the right to vote due to the women’s movement in the nineteenth century, but until now the discrimination in women’s lives still exists (Bernat, 2007). ====

====According to the statistics from the World Health Organization website, gender inequality is a determinant in many health issues. For example, an increased proportion of women living with HIV is associated with the gender norm that men are encouraged to have more sexual partners. Additionally, violence against women and the fear of violence is another factor which leads to a high rate of HIV infection in women because they are fear to ask their partner to use condem as a safe sexual behaviour. Lack of relevant knowledge and economic security in the female population is also a barrier to health promotion (WHO, 2013). The 2008 UNAIDS global figures show that only 38% of young women have accurate and comprehensive knowledge of HIV/AIDS. The document “‘En-gendering’ the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) on Health” explains the importance of building a gender-equitable societies and developing rights for every women as well as the relationship with the other MDGs (WHO, 2003). ====

// The Millennium Development Goals //

====Hudson (2007) argues that the traditional idea of son preference is one of the historical roots of gender inequality and still exists contemporarily in many countries. A high sex ratio of males to females in some countries is attributed to the selective abortion and infanticide (Central Intelligence Agency, 2013) which affects women’s reproductive health and mental health (Hudson, 2007). Moreover, son preference is a significant determinant in girls are more likely to experience nutritional disadvantage, which is considered insufficient nutritional intake and less access to medication (WHO, 2003). WHO’s MDG5 outlines that “poor nutrition of girls and women due to gender discrimination can increase the chances of life-threatening complications at the time of pregnancy”. Although son preference is more common in some Asian countries which have influenced by the Confucian culture, it also presents among in some developed countries which is associated with socioeconomic and educational factors. During 1995 to 1996, a cross-section study of the investigation of son preference among 432 Hispanic women shows that most Hispanic women with less educational attainment have a higher desire of having sons than daughters (Unger & Molina, 1997). Another study in rural China also demonstrates the phenomenon that people who have a higher income have weaker son preference than those who have lower income (Murphy & et.al, 2011). Furthermore high rates of illiteracy among women and girls are likely to lead to maternal mortality, which is the number one cause of death for adolescent girls15-19 years old (WHO, 2003). Therefore, women’s education is one of the most pressing problems. ====

====Education is vital to development and girl’s education is critically associated with self-determination, improved health, social and economic status as well as beneficial health outcomes. However, the opportunity of educational attainment particularly secondary and tertiary education in girls is still unequal to boys in some areas such as Southern Asia, sub-Saharan Africa and Western Asia (UNFPA, 2005). According to statistics from the EFA Global Monitoring Report (2005), female account 64% of the illiterate population worldwide (see figure 1). It is clear that developing countries have a larger gap of educational attainment between two gender groups than the developed countries. ====

// Figure 1 (UNESCO, 2004) // At the same time, “Promote gender equality and empower” as a Millennium Development Goal indicates that achieving gender parity in education is crucial. The statistics shown below are from the Millennium Development Goals Report 2005, which illustrates the gender disparity in primary and secondary education in 1990/91 and 2001/2002 (see figure 2). // Figure 2 //// (The Millennium Development Goals Report, 2005) // It is pleasing to see that in most areas the girls’ primary enrolment rate has increased in 10 years. However, in developing regions especially in southern Asia, there is still a big gap between two gender groups (MDG report, 2005, p.12).

// Private school students promote women’s education in Pakistan // ====Moreover, the inequality of education has significant effects on women’s employment and hence affects other related choices in their future lives (Alkadry, 2006, p. 891). There is evidence that more women than men work in low-status jobs (MDG report, 2005, p. 16). Over 60 percents of family workers who in unpaid work are women (see figure 3), which is one of the reasons that women are less financial independent than men and have fewer social benefits. ==== // Figure 3 (The Millennium Development Goals Report, 2005) // ====A relevant study of pay disparities between men and women that collected 1600 responses for four groups of public procurement professionals from an online national survey in the United States and found that the gender wage gap of annual earnings ranged from $5,035 to $9,577 (Alkadry, 2006, p.888). The limitations of the study are indicated as the survey was not available to people who do not belong to the National Institute for Governmental Purchasing. Additionally, there was a nonresponse bias reported in the article. ====

// Equal work deserves equal pay //

====Education is one of the determinants that leads to a lower pay of women, on the other hand, gender roles such as childbearing, childrearing and other home-oriented activities which are traditionally considered as women’s jobs also provide women fewer opportunities to access high income occupation. ====

====Historically, women were required to undertake domestic skills while men undertook learning skills that were beneficial in male-dominated paid occupations (Eagly, 2000, p.451). In some countries such as Pakistan, Afghanistan, India Fiji and China, women are encouraged to stay at home preparing and serving food for the family, doing housework, looking after children and elderly. As the result of this traditional idea of gender roles, women are under stress and anxiety due to inadequate skills to compete with men in the employment. Consequently women's depression also has an impact on their children and family (Roghanian & Moradi, 2013). ====

Cultural and Social Analysis
“Gender is a socially and culturally defined concept”(Bernat, 2007). According to Tong (2001) feminist theory reflects the diversity of women all round the world through several ideas which aim to build a system of equal rights, justice and fairness. Women have been excluded from traditional philosophy due to the incorrect perspective that women are less mentally and physically capable than men. Feminist theory outlines that the discrimination of women is due to our patriarchal society which is mainly controlled by men, and the idea of establishing an equal system for both sexes (Tong, 2001, p.5484). It focuses on the issues in all institutions including legislation, education, medication and social community. In the 21st century, there are many areas including politics, workplace and legal system that have achieved greater equality as the consequence of the feminist movement. The Millennium Development Goals report (2005) indicates that “more than 80 countries are taking specific actions to guarantee women’s political participation by 2004”. Meanwhile, Dorius and Firebaugh (2010) found that gender inequality has reduced globally across diverse religious and cultural traditions. However, traditional attitudes about gender roles still exist in some poorer areas of the world, which slow the decline of gender inequality. A recent event that illustrates this is the story of Malala Yousafzai. Malala Yousafzai is a 16-year-old girl, who stood for the women's rights for attending school in Pakistan, was the youngest person nomintated for 2013 Nobel Peace Prize. She was shot by the Taliban in 2012 but fortunately survived. Now she continues to contribute in the education of girls worldwide through Malala Fund.



// A 16-year-old girl who stands for girls’ education and shot by Taliban & her book "I Am Malala" // ** Fast facts from the MDG fact sheet ** (MDGs Report, 2013)
 * ==== Steady progress has been made towards equal access of girls and boys to education, though disparities remain between regions and education levels. ====
 * ==== Globally, the share of women employed outside of agriculture rose to 40 per cent, but rose to only 20 per cent in Southern Asia, Western Asia and Northern Africa. ====
 * ==== The global share of women in parliament continues to rise slowly and reached 20 per cent in 2012—far short of gender parity, though an increase of one percentage point was seen during 2012. ====

Data from the measurement of the global gender inequality from 1960 to 2005 demonstrates that gender inequality in sub-Saharan African and Middle East and North Africa continues to grow (Dorius & Firebaugh, 2010, p.1949). As a result, women (girls) in these areas are still facing the issues of being discriminated, disadvantaged and segregated, who is the main group that strongly affected by the gender inequality. Reducing the gender inequality worldwide is crucial for the development of women’s human rights, promotion of health in all human beings.

Thus, gender issues in these areas need to be taken into consideration by the public health experts. For example, mainly focusing on the issue of the high rate of teenage pregnancies in developing countries-7.3 million every year (UNFPA, 2013). Early pregnancy has negative effects on the girl's health, education, rights as well as the baby's growth (UN News Centre). In order to reduce the pregnancies in young adolescents, it is crucial to provide adequate education, health service and change the policies and norms of families, communities and governments.

// A adolescent mum and her son //

My learning reflection to the artefact
====<span style="color: #17365d; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Footrace is a significant artefact that represents the serious issue of gender gap between men and women. I believe that gender inequalities have negative impacts on the development of our society. It not only affects the rights and health of women, but also some relevant problems in other groups. For example, increasing education in girls can reduce the prevalence of maternal health, providing job opportunities for women can also reduce the financial pressure of the men. It is clear that women have been discriminated in many ways historically because of the biological differentiation from men. Now it is the time to change this situation. In today’s society many organizations either governmental or private, have taken actions to improve women’s rights all over the world. As the artefact shows that the heavy metal chain is snapped by the pincer of “equality of opportunity”, gender inequality is in the process of declining. Empowering women’s rights in education, occupation, politics and health areas is a difficult task for the entire society. It is necessary to regard women as independent human being as men, so the traditional idea of gender roles should be discarded. In my opinion, cultural and social factors are both the cause and solution for people's profoundly held ideas of gender roles. ====

====<span style="color: #17365d; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">I know the heavy chain of gender inequality is not as easy to cut as the one in the image, however, as the rapid civilization development of human society, we will finally build an equal community for all the human beings. Consequenttly, acknowledging gender inequalities in different areas will assist me to determine the factors of health outcomes which are relative to gender, including their education, jobs, income and associated behavious, belifes and values. ====

Cows with Guns (n8833346)
==== Your wiki structurally outlines the issue about how people deal with the animals inhumanely. It provides evidence that 500 million animals are suffered in Australia every year by factory farming. The wiki also demonstrates some specific examples of the living situation of the farmed cows and battery hens to reinforce the cruelty. Meanwhile, you have analysise the cultural and social factors that influenced by this issue and the movement that has done for improving this problem. However, I think it will be better if you refer to some evidence-based articles which are associated with the relevant issues in the cultural and social analysis part. ====

HIV-The Silent Killer (n8580570)
==== Your wiki is overall great!! Your artifact is straightforward and let me realize how HIV infection is risky in the particular group-men who have sex with men (MSM). Your wiki has provided a large amount of information of the increasing prevalence of HIV in Australia. Meanwhile, you have shown us lots of relevant statistics about this issue that reinforces the importance of reducing it. However, I think more pictures may give better visual effects which will also persuade the readers to enjoy it! ====

** Reference **
Alkadry, M. G. & Tower, L. E. (2006). Unequal Pay: The Role of Gender. //Public Administration Review//. //66//(6), 888-898. Retrieved from: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4096605

Bernat, F. (2007). Gender. In D. Clark (Ed.), //Encyclopedia of law & society: American and global perspectives//. (pp.631-635). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezp01.library.qut.edu.au/10.4135/9781412952637.n273

Buchmann, C., DiPrete, T. A., & McDaniel, A. (2008). Gender Inequalities in Education. //Annual Review of Socioogyl.34//, 319-337. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.34.040507.134719

Blau, F. D., Gielen, A. C., & Zimmermann, K. F. (2012). The Gender Wage Gap: Determinants and Trends over Time for the United States. //Gender, Inequality, and Wages//. doi: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199665853.001.0001

Colclough, C. (2004). Education for All-The Quality Imperative. //EFA Global Monitoring Report//. Retrieved from []

Connell, R. (2011). Gender, health and theory: Conceptualizing the issue, in local and world perspective. //Social Science & Medicine//. //74//(2012), 1675-1683. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.06.006

Dorius, S. F. & Firebaugh, G. (2010). Trends in Global Gender Inequality. //Social Forces. 88//(5), 1941-1968. Retrieved from: []

Department of Gender and Women’s Health, World Health Organization. (2003). //‘En-gendering’ the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) on Health//. Retrieved from: http://www.who.int/topics/millennium_development_goals/gender/en/index.html

Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat. (2005). //The Millennium Development Goals Report//. Retrieved from: http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals

Eagly, A. H. (2000). Gender Roles. //Encyclopedia of Psychology. 3//, 448-453. doi: 10.1037/10518-215

Hudson, V. M, (2007). Son Preference. In D. Clark (Ed.), //Encyclopedia of Law & Society: American and Global Perspectives//. (pp.1422). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. doi: 10.4135/9781412952637

Jones, S., Cormier, L. A., & Baker, L. R. (2011). Gender iniquity as Cultural Diversity. //Antrocom Online Journal of Anthropology. 7//(2). 197-212.

Murphy, R., Tao, R., & Lu, X. (2011). Son Preference in Rural China: Partrilineal Families and Socioeconomic Change. //Population and Development Review. 37//(4), 666-690.

Roghanian, Z. & Moradi, M. (2013). Gender inequality, depression and job opportunities. //European Psychiatry. 28//(1), Retrieved from: @http://dx.doi.org.ezp01.library.qut.edu.au/10.1016/S0924-9338(13)76991-8

Tong, R. (2001). Feminist Theory. //International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Science.// 5484-5491. doi: 10.1016/B0-08-043076-7/03945-0

Unger, J. B & Molina, G. B. (1997). Desired family size and son preference among Hispanic women of low socioeconomic status. //Family Planning Perspectives. 29//(6), 284-287. Retrieved from: []