This+Dress+is+Not+a+Yes

Lauren Roberts n8859621 Tutor: Mangalam Sankupellay

Victim Blaming in Sexual Assault Cases



 * The Artefact**

It is Melbourne’s 2013 ‘Slutwalk’ – a protest aimed at combatting the culture of victim blaming (Slutwalk Chicago, 2013). A protester holds her sign proud, brandishing a powerful question: “Why does alcohol excuse his actions but condemn mine?”.


 * The Public Health Issue **

According to the World Health Organisation (WHO) (n.d.), sexual violence has a profound impact on both the physical and mental health of its victims. Not only does victim blaming marginalize the victim and therefore increase the psychological burden placed on the individual, it also allows the abuser to perpetrate sexual assault while avoiding accountability for their actions (Center for Relationship Abuse Awareness, 2013), which in turn holds the potential to increase the number of sexual assault cases worldwide.


 * Literature Review **

WHO (n.d.) defines sexual violence as “any sexual act, attempt at a sexual act, unwanted sexual comments or acts to traffic against a person’s sexuality using coercion, by any person regardless of their relationship to the victim, in any setting”. WHO (2002) estimates that, in some countries, approximately one in four women experience sexual violence by an intimate partner (Okan, 2011, p. 2). A study conducted among 6000 university students in the United States found that one in six women reported being victims of rape or attempted rape, and one in fifteen men reported committing or attempting rape (Okan, 2011, p. 2).

While a number of statistics are quoted and suggest that the sexual assault of women is a highly prevalent worldwide phenomenon; they are still argued to fall short of representing the true extent of the problem (Okan, 2011, p.2). It is important to acknowledge that, regardless of their source, all statistics regarding this topic will be an under-estimate of the extent of the actual problem as there will always be women who are too distressed or embarrassed about what has happened to them to disclose or report it (Chung, 2013, p.4).

Data from the Australian Bureau of Statistics shows that in Australia in 2006, only 36% of female victims of physical assault and 19% of female victims of sexual assault reported it to authorities (Chung, 2013, p. 4). Further, data from the 2006 //National Violence Against Women Survey// suggests that almost 80% of sexual assault cases go unreported to the police (Okan, 2011, p.2). Stahl, Eek and Kazemi (2010, p. 240) say that rape victims’ reluctance to report transgressions to proper authorities is most likely due to a concept known as ‘secondary victimization’.

“//As if the rape weren't bad enough, I had to go through// //everything that I did with the police and doctors. It's just more rape. The rape just keeps on and on, like you just can't escape it."// //A rape survivor (Okan, 2011, p.2)//

Secondary victimization implies that victims not only have to suffer from the transgression itself, but also from confidantes or authorities who tend to see them as partially responsible for the offence that has been committed against them (Stahl, et al., 2010, p. 240). Also known as second rape, secondary victimization broadly refers to lack or inappropriateness of reactions towards the survivors of sexual assault leading to feelings of re-victimization (Okan, 2011, p.4). An example of secondary victimization is questions or comments that imply the victim may have “asked for it” (Okan, 2011, p.4).

Stahl et al. (2010), state that two key motives for victim blaming are rape myth acceptance and victim blaming as system justification.

According to Stahl et al. (2010), rape myths are “attitudes and beliefs that are generally false but widely and persistently held, and that serve to deny and justify male sexual aggression against women.” A substantial number of studies have demonstrated that acceptance of rape myths can predict how people perceive descriptions of rape cases as well as their perceptions of victims verses perpetrators of rape (Stahl et al., 2010). Studies have generally found that people with a high rape myth acceptance assign less responsibility to perpetrators and more responsibility and blame to rape victims (Stahl et al., 2010). Furthermore, people with high acceptance of rape myths frequently fail to acknowledge that descriptions fitting the legal definition of rape are legitimate examples of rape (Stahl et al., 2010).
 * Rape Myths **

System justification theory (SJT) suggests, “people are motivated to justify and rationalize the way things are, so that existing social, economic and political arrangements tend to be perceived as fair and legitimate” (Stahl et al., 2010). It has generally been implied that rape myths serve to justify male sexual aggression against women and researchers have demonstrated how previously proposed antecedents of rape myths (e.g. gender roles, adversarial sexual beliefs, tolerance of interpersonal violence) can be accountable for a general hostility towards women (Stahl et al., 2010). By justifying male sexual aggression towards women it is argued that rape myths and hence rape victim blaming serve to validate the status quo, thus satisfying the system justification theory.
 * System Justification **

There are numerous consequences associated with secondary victimization caused by victim blaming in sexual assault cases. These include increased feelings of shame and embarrassment and in more serious cases, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Okan, 2011, p. 4). Further, negative reactions from confidantes or authorities cause victims to withdraw and refrain from discussing their assault, thus preventing themselves from receiving appropriate medical and psychological help (Okan, 2011, p. 4).


 * Cultural and Social Analysis **

Society’s influence on the trend of victim blaming within sexual assault cases is monumental. The trend arises from a culture that we as Australian’s are unwillingly immersed in every day, known as a rape culture. Rape culture is an environment in which sexual violence against women is normalized and excused in the media and popular culture (Marshall University, n.d.). It is perpetuated through the use of misogynistic language, the objectification of women’s bodies and the glamorization of sexual violence; examples of all of which are seen in the media every day (Marshall University, n.d.).

As previously mentioned, the system justification theory holds that individuals are motivated to rationalize the status quo (Liviatin & Jost, 2011, p. 231). Since its formulation, hundreds of studies have supported predictions derived from the theory, demonstrating ways in which people maintain the status quo and overlook its flaws, thereby perceiving it as more legitimate than it actually is (Liviatin & Jost, 2011, p. 232). As media and popular culture perpetuate ideologies of rape culture, objectification of and violence against women becomes the status quo and victim blaming serves to justify it, as the system justification theory suggests.

Feminists theorist have introduced a concept known as gender socialization; whereby a female becomes a woman by acquiring feminine traits and learning feminine behavior (Mikkola, 2011). However, feminists argue that feminine and masculine gender-norms are problematic in that gendered behavior conveniently fits with and reinforces women’s subordination so that women are socialized into inferior social roles: they learn to be passive, ignorant, docile, emotional helpmeets for men (Mikkola, 2011). Gender socialization states that female gender roles and behaviors are learned just as rape culture theorists argue that the influence of gender on sexual violence is learned (Marshall University, 2011). They reason that since these roles are simply learned, society can minimize gender inequalities by ‘unlearning’ social roles and aiming to diminish the influence of socialization (Mikkola, 2011).

With one in every five women experiencing sexual violence since the age of 15 years and 93 per cent of offenders being male, it is essential that public health experts focus on a shift in the portrayal of women in the media in order to minimize the effects arising from rape culture (CASA, 2013). Public recognition of the inequalities within socially constructed gender norms can revise shared attitudes, leading to a decrease in the prominence of rape culture. The eventual abolishment of rape culture ideologies will see a decrease in the trend of victim blaming and empower women to seek both physical and psychological help following an assault.


 * Analysis of the Artefact **

The artifact represents the fight against victim blaming in sexual assault cases, a trend which has arisen in response to society’s patriarchal ideologies. Rape culture continuously perpetuates the norms of sexual aggression against women and this artifact displays the frustration that women feel towards such gender inequalities that lead to trends such as victim blaming.

It is a good case in point for my topic as it clearly displays the frustration felt by women in response to the trend of victim blaming and reflects socially constructed gender inequalities that impact on the day-to-day lives of women. The protester is clearly aggravated by the misogynistic, perpetrator defending and victim blaming excuses heard within sexual assault cases and it is of the utmost importance that these are abolished in order for women to feel empowered enough to speak out.

To me, personally, this artifact carries great significance as it represents the struggles (while they may seem trivial in comparison to sexual assault) that I have faced throughout my life as a woman. Thorough analysis of this topic has taught me that while the feminist movement has triggered great advances in gender equality, there are still many challenges that women still face today, which have detrimental impacts on victims of sexual assault. Socially constructed gender norms have created expectations for women to adapt submissive, inferior roles that perpetuate the norms of male dominance and allow and justify rape and victim blaming. In further, I will utilize my understanding of socially constructed gender norms and help others to challenge their mentalities and seek a deeper understanding of the concept that is gender socialization.


 * Reference List **

Center for Relationship Abuse Awareness. (2013). Avoid Victim Blaming. Retrieved from http://stoprelationshipabuse.org/educated/avoiding-victim-blaming/

Centres Against Sexual Assault (CASA). (2013). Fact Sheet: Statistics about Sexual Assault. Retrieved from http://www.casa.org.au/casa_pdf.php?document=statistics

Chung, D. (2013). Understanding the Statistics about Male Violence Against Women. //White Ribbon Research Series, 5//, 1-11. Retrieved from http://www.whiteribbon.org.au

George, W., & Martinez, L. (2002). Victim Blaming in Rape: Effects of Victim and Perpetrator Race, Type of Rape, and Participant Racism. //Psychology of Women Quarterly, 26,// 110-119. Retrieved from http://pwq.sagepub.com/

Liviatan, I., & Jost, J. (2011). Special Issue: System Justification Theory Motivated Social Cognition in the Service of the Status Quo. //Social Cognition, 29,// 231-237. Retrieved from http://www.guilford.com

Marshall University. (n.d.). Rape Culture. Retrieved October 31, 2013, from http://www.marshall.edu/wpmu/wcenter/sexual-assault/rape-culture/

Mikkola, M. (2011). Feminist Perspectives on Sex and Gender. Retrieved from http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2012/entries/feminism-gender/#GenSoc

Okan, E. (2011). Secondary Victimization in Survivors of Sexual Assault: Role of Service Providers. //Secondary Victimization//, 1-16. Retrieved from http://www.academia.edu

Slutwalk Chicago. (2013). Slutwalk Chicago. Retrieved October 25, 2013, from http://www.slutwalkchicago.org/

Stahl, T., Eek, D., & Kazemi, A. (2010). Rape Victim Blaming as System Justification: The Role of Gender and Activation of Complementary Stereotypes. //Social Justice Research, 23//, 239-258. doi: 10.1007/s11211-010-0117-0

World Health Organisation. (n.d.). Sexual Violence. Retrieved from http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2002/9241545615_chap6_eng.pdf

**Reflection**

https://healthcultureandsociety2013.wikispaces.com/%27The+Junkie%27+Moral+panic%2C+stigma+and+the+road+to+recovery

https://healthcultureandsociety2013.wikispaces.com/Close+The+Gap%2C+A+Campaign+200+Years+Late