Red+Meat+Human+Health-Good+or+Bad?

Student Name: Hoi Kei Yuen Student Number: n8691991 Tutor: Steve Badman

=Artefact=

The Benefits and Disadvantages of Eating Meat
media type="youtube" key="XvdMFMeleN8" width="560" height="315"

The cultural artefact is a video produced by 5min.com, and features Dr. John Berardi, an expert in human performance and nutrition, discussing both the merits and demerits of eating meat. Berardi argues that meat provides essential nutrients such as protein and vitamin B, however, eating meat may present potential risks such as dietary replacement, and consuming carcinogens, hormones and antibiotics. He goes on to state that eliminating meat entirely is not the best solution for good health, but rather, people should consume the right kind of meat in appropriate amounts and understand ways to reduce the risks. He suggests that the risk can be managed, for example, by avoid eating processed or over-cooked meat. By doing so, humans can enjoy the benefits while reducing the risks.

=The Public Health Issue=

The cultural artefact represents the public health issue of the relationship between meat and human health. Eating meat, particularly red meat, provides both benefits and harm to human health. For this reason, whether humans should eat red meat or not has been hotly debated in recent years. Some people believe that humans should turn to vegetarianism in order to avoid the unnecessary health risks, while others maintain that not eating red meat may carry a high risk of suffering from health problems such as nutrient deficiency and further anaemia. This wiki page will focus on both beneficial and harmful effects of eating red meat on certain diseases including cancer, cardiovascular disease as well as the nutritional importance of eating red meat.

=Literature Review=

The relationship between red meat and human health cannot be confirmed because there is evidence supporting both beneficial and harmful effects of red meat in relation to certain diseases. Gunderson (2012) suggests that high fat intake due to overconsumption of meat is closely related to health problems including diabetes, stroke, and colorectal cancer. On the other hand, Cosgrove, Flynn & Kiely (2005) report that low iron status is associated with reduced red meat intake.This literature review will summarise the literature on the effect of red meat on cardiovascular disease, cancer, and obesity. It will also discuss the methodologies applied by researchers as well as the limitations.

__ Red Meat and Cardiovascular Disease: __

It is seemingly that red meat potentiates high risk of cardiovascular disease. Several studies (Fraser, 1999; Kelemen, Kushi, Jacobs, & Cerhan, 2005; Kontogianni, Panagiotakos, Pitsavos, Chrysohoou, & Stefanadis, 2008) report the positive association between increased risk of cardiovascular disease and red meat. This could be attributed to the excessive saturated fat in red meat. McNeill, & Van Elswyk (2012) suggest that saturated fat, which is found abundant in red meat, is the main risk factor of cardiovascular disease. Interestingly, lean red meat consumption is not associated with cardiovascular disease. A randomized case-control study from Kontogianni et al. (2008) finds that high red meat intake escalates the risk of acute coronary syndrome, however, reduced consumption is unlikely to reduce the risk. Meanwhile, Li, Siriamornpun, Wahlqvist, Mann, & Sinclair (2005) conclude that lean red meat, which has low saturated fat content, helps in lower LDL cholesterol level. They also point out that meat occupies only 12% of daily fat intake. Given that saturated fat is the main contributor to the risk of cardiovascular disease and lean red meat has low saturated fat content, lean red meat is, therefore, does not necessarily linked to the risk of cardiovascular disease.

__ Red Meat and Cancer: __

Eating red meat may cause cancer. Some literature (Corpet, 2011;Luciano, 2009;McAfee, McSorley, Cuskelly, Moss, Wallace, Bonham, & Fearon, 2010) conclude that high consumption of red meat potentiates various types of cancer, particularly colorectal cancer. The carcinogenic substances present in red meat might be the risk factors. Pro-cancer factors of red meat include excess protein, fat, heat-induced mutagens, and iron (Corpet, 2011). However, a meta-analysis involving 1.5 million participants conducted by Alexander, Cushing, Lowe, Sceurman, & Roberts (2009) demonstrates that animal protein and fat are not the risk factors of cancer. Hill (2002) also reports the increased incidence of cancer with reduced red meat intake. Therefore, risk factors of cancer may be the factors associated with red meat. Corpet (2011); D. Higgs, & Higgs (2000) and Ferguson (2010) provide that factors such as body and abdominal fitness, alcoholic drinks, attained height of adult, tea and coffee consumption, cooking style (overcooked or high salt content) and cigarette smoking may contribute to increased risk of colorectal cancer. For this reason, red meat does not firmly related to increased risk of cancer.

__ Red Meat and obesity: __

Red meat eaters have greater prevalence of obesity. Wang & Beydoun (2009) confirm that individuals who have high meat intake are more likely, around 27% higher, suffering from obesity. However,several studies (Campbell & Tang, 2010; Leslie, Lean, Baillie, & Hankey, 2002) undertaken on obese population demonstrate a better result of weight loss via lean red meat diet when compared to chicken, fish or carbohydrate diet. This may be due to the different saturated fat content between untrimmed and lean red meat. McAfee et al. (2010) explain that lean meat contains a relatively low proportion of saturated fat which lowers the probability of excess weight gain. In short, consumption of lean red meat is not linked to the risk of obesity.

__ Red Meat Is Main Source of C ____ ertain Essential Nutrient: __

Insufficient red meat intake potentiates malnutrition such as iron and vitamin B12 deficiency. Cosgrove et al. (2005) recommend that high risk of inadequate B12 intakes can be reduced by regular consumption of moderate amounts of red meat (40–72 g/d). Meanwhile, a better iron status is shown from meat eaters when compared with vegetarians and vegans (Cosgrove et al., 2005; Gibson & Ashwell, 2002). This may be because of haem iron, which is relatively absorbable and can only be found from animal source, is abundant in red meat. Red meat is recognised as a significant source of haem iron compared to poultry and fish (Johnston, Prynne, Stephen, & Wadsworth, 2007).

Overall, red meat may potentiate certain diseases, however, the benefits outweigh the harms in the case of moderate consumption. Given that insufficient intake may cause malnutrition which contributes to health problems such as anaemia due to iron deficiency as well as overconsumption of untrimmed red meat induces cancer, moderate intake of lean red meat instead of elimination or overconsumption of untrimmed red meat is highly recommended in an attempt to allow humans to enjoy the benefits while lower the health risks. McAfee et al. (2010) and Ferguson (2010) suggest that moderate consumption of lean red meat allows sufficient nutrient intake and is unlikely to heighten the risk for cardiovascular disease and colon cancer.

__ Importance of investigating the relationship between red meat and human health: __

There is great controversy over whether red meat is an important risk factor causing certain health problem such as cancer and cardiovascular disease. World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research (2007) raises attention that cancer risk is positively associated with red and processed meat. Thus, many people eliminate red meat from their diets. However, this induces another health problem which is high risk of nutrient deficiency. For this reason, it is an important issue in recent years.

__ Methodologies and Limitations: __

Various types of methodologies are applied including cohort study, randomised controlled trials(RCT) and clinical intervention study. The examples are that cohort study was used by English, MacInnis, Hodge, Hopper, Haydon, & Giles (2004); randomized controlled trials (RCT) was utilised by Maki, K. C., Van Elswyk, M. E., Alexander, D. D., Rains, T. M., Sohn, E. L., & McNeill, S. (2011), and clinical intervention studies was demonstrated in the research conducted by Campbell & Tang (2010), and Leslie et al. (2002).

Limitations of studies include inaccurate measurement of meat consumption and difficulty in separating meat consumption with its associated factors such as alcoholic consumption. The inaccurate measurement of red meat intake in National Survey of Health and Development is reported by Cosgrove, Flynn, & Kiely (2004), and Prynne, Wagemakers, Stephen, & Wadsworth (2009). Meanwhile, alcohol intake, which is one of the risk factors of cancer, is another variable along with red meat consumption in the study conducted by English et al. (2004). Given the research inconsistences and methodological limitations, there still requires more consistence research to prove the relationship between red meat and human health.

=Cultural and Social Analysis=

"Not eating meat is non-manly, vegetable is for girls."

In many western societies, people believe that a real man should be able to display masculinity, which is one of the gender characteristics of male. Rahul (as cited in De Visser, Smit, & McDonnell, 2009, p.1056) emphasizes that for the purpose of accruing masculine credit, most men perform various behavioural domains. One of such behaviours is eating red meat. The reason for this is due to the traditional cultural belief that red meat represents masculinity. Sobal (2005) points out that meat, red meat in particular, has long been archetypically considered as masculine food. Men’s consumption is highly influenced by the perception of masculinity derived from red meat. Thus, it is vitally important to consider the association between masculinity and red meat when trying to investigate the effect of red meat consumption on human health. In regards to this issue, male are the most vulnerable group because men seemingly eat more red meat in an attempt to perform their gender characteristic. Rothgerber (2012) and Stibbe (2004) agree the association between positive images of masculinity and red meat consumption. As the awareness of eating excessive red meat promotes certain disease such as cancer, cardiovascular disease and obesity, men may want to reduce red meat consumption for good health, however, this is socially regarded as feminine behaviour as opposed to masculinity. Therefore, men are more likely to be struggling when it comes to reduce red meat intake. The issue of increasing incidences of health problems caused by overconsumption of red meat is common in recent years. It is important to raise public’s awareness about this issue for two reasons. Firstly, to help individuals, especially men, to modify their red meat intake in order to obtain health benefits while avoid the risks from their healthy and balanced diets. Secondly, to alleviate the healthcare burden by assisting individuals to obtain healthy and balanced diets. Women are less likely to be affected by this health issue because they have a tendency of reducing their red meat consumption. A study from Rothgerber (2012) reports that female tends to eat more vegetables and less meat. Given that the issue of red meat consumption is much more serious among male population, public health experts should focus on the way to discourage men from overconsumption. Considering the association between masculine image and red meat, public health experts should try to persuade men to reduce the consumption instead of elimination. Meanwhile, proven that moderate daily intake of red meat provides benefits to human health, public health experts are also encouraged to promote eating right kind such as lean red meat, and proper amounts such as 40–72 g/day (Cosgrove et al., 2005) in order to get all the benefits while reduce health risks.

=Learning Reflection=

This artefact delivers the message that meat eating offers both pros and cons to human health as well as humans should not avoid eating meat due to the ideology that meat potentiates certain diseases. The core message of the artefact concurs with the health issue discussed in which well managing the consumption of red meat is the best solution rather than elimination or overconsumption. Meanwhile, the risk associated with red meat can be reduced in many ways, for example, avoiding overcooking. It is totally healthy and beneficial to eat red meat as long as the types and consumption of red meat are monitored. After doing this assignment, I understand that lean red meat is important source of many nutrients that should not be eliminated from the diet. It is a healthy food source given in the moderate intake. I have learnt that every food may impose both benefits and risk on health. I should strike a balance and try to get the benefits while reducing the risks, such as eating moderate amount of red meat while increasing veggie intake. After that, I realise that choosing whether or not to eat meat cannot be based on an ideology. Before conducting this assignment, I believed that vegetarianism is encouraged as it is a countermeasure to cruel treatment to animal. However, the literature allows me to I figure out that vegetarianism indeed do not beneficial to human health. In other words, my perception should be based on evidence-based studies and critical thinking should be applied. This assignment is valuable because it inspires me to reflect on my thinking process. I reckon that I should thoroughly understand both positive and negative sides of the issues in different aspects before deciding my viewpoints.

=Reference=

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2. Campbell, W. W., & Tang, M. (2010). Protein intake, weight loss, and bone mineral density in postmenopausal women. //Journal of Gerontology//, 65A(10), 1115–1122. doi:10.1093/gerona/glq083 =====

3. Corpet, D. E. (2011). Red meat and colon cancer: Should we become vegetarians, or can we make meat safer.//Meat Science,// 89(3), 310-316. doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2011.04.009

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=Reflection= 1. N8909822 http://healthcultureandsociety2013.wikispaces.com/Does+meat+make+men+more+masculine%3F

2. **N8866937** http://healthcultureandsociety2013.wikispaces.com/Is+Red+Meat+Doing+More+Harm+Than+Good