The+Costs+of+Intensive+Animal+Farming


 * Liliana Botero Zapata**
 * Student Number**: N8802211
 * Tutor**: Steven Badman

= = =The Costs of Intensive Animal Farming=



Artefact
This artefact, which is the cover a book writen in 1920, showed a representation of the incraesed scale of meat production. Economic growth, increased in earnings and population growth in affluent areas have all contributed to higher demands in meat production. For example in Latina America and China, higher incomes mean that there has been a remarkable increase in meat consumption (World cancer research fund International 2013). In China as of 2012 meat consumption was double that in the United States (Earth Policy Institute, 2012). The cost of intensive livestock farming has dramatically impacted the environmental mainly through deforestation and land degradation. Further, increased pollution events and greenhouse gas emissions arising from intensive livestock farming are contributing to global climate change (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2006). In addition, people in affluent countries are consuming increased quantities of meat products resulting in obesity and subsequent diet related chronic diseases; while in contrast, millions of people in poorer nations and developing countries are still suffering from chronic hunger. Moreover, many intensive livestock farming practices have been questioned in regards to the ethical treatment and wellbeing of production animals.

Public Health Issue
Scientific research has shown that intensive livestock farming (or factory farming) is an increasing threat to human health, the environment and animal welfare (Pluhar, 2010). There is strong evidence to suggest that the way animals are farmed or treated can result in detrimental public health implications. One clear example of this is the process of zoonosis, whereby pathogens from domesticated animals (typically intensively farmed) are transferred to humans (Wolfe, Claire Panosian, & Diamond, 2007). A Canadian study has also shown a relationship with intensive animal farming and mental health; particularly those individuals living closer to intensive production farms reporting higher levels of depression, with the main concern being environmental issues (Villeneuve, Challacombe, & Hebert, 2009).

Literature Review
Meat consumption in the world has quadrupled over the past 50 years from 70 million tons in 1961 to 283 million tons per year (Global Agriculture, 2013). Unsurprisingly, demand for meat products has consequently seen an increase in meat production worldwide, with predicted annual meat production rising to 376 million tons by 2030 (World cancer research fund International 2013); Current regional production patterns support these predictions, for example, in Australia alone, a record of 198,000 tons of meat were produced in the June to August quarter 2013 (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2013)

Increasing demands for high quality and quantity of meat both in the domestic and global markets means that the livestock industry enters in direct competition for land, water and natural resources (FAO, 2006). Globally, the area of agricultural and grazing land has increased by 50% within the last century, placing pressure on natural ecosystems (Bai & Hartemink, 2008). Presently, around 13 million hectares of forest are cleared for agricultural use per year, mainly in tropical regions (FAO, 2010), and in Australia’s Wet Tropic region, as of 2008, 60% of remnant tropical forest has been cleared for extensive grazing pastures (Ramsey, 2008). Importantly, land use transformation is now considered among the principal drivers of environmental change (Foley et al., 2005).

Livestock production has produced many environmental problems via the conversion of forest to pasture systems. Deforestation typically leads to land degradation from the associated loss of soil fertility and soil erosion (Holl, 1999). Importantly, loss of forest cover can interrupt valuable ecosystem services (Daily, & Matson 2008) and the functioning of nutrient and hydrological cycles (Dudley, 2005). Deforestation also impacts upon biodiversity by reducing habitat and species diversity (Lees & Peres, 2008). Additionally, livestock farming accounts for 18% of greenhouse gas emission contributing to climate change from both anthropogenic CO2 emissions and via carbon loss through deforestation (FAO, 2006). By-products associated with livestock production can also impact the surrounding environment via water pollution contributing to eutrophication or "dead" zones in coastal areas, degradation of coral reefs, human health problems, and the emergence of antibiotic resistance (FAO, 2006).

The process of factory farming has brought damaging consequences to the planet, and as stated below to the animal’s welfare as well. The latest report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has stated that "//it is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of observed warming since the mid-20th century //" (IPCC, 2013).

Farming practices have changed dramatically, making animal production more industrialized which involve a very large number of animals being raised in compact spaces, and are fed and bred with the aim to maximise production (Compassion in World Farming, 2013). In Australia, the beef industry is the largest in the agricultural sector, with feedlots making up the majority of the industry (Australian Lot Feeders Association, 2006). According to the Australian Lot Feeders Association, the major concerns to the feedlot sector include market access, international parity price grain, animal welfare, climate change, exotic disease, legislation and land planning (among others).

According to Broom (1991) welfare refers to "the state of an individual in relation to its environment, both failure to cope with the environment and difficulty with coping are indictors of poor welfare" Broom also suggests that while animals who are fed in a highly efficient way (high energy and protein diets and steroid growth hormones for meat, milk or egg production), can increase productivity to the farmer, these activities can also reduce the life expectancy of the animal (Broom, 1991).

Cattle kept in feedlots are fed unnatural diets (grains and high energy foods rather than a variety of grasses), and often suffer from disease, heat stress and lack of exercise due to the cramped living conditions (Animal liberation Queensland, 2004). Similarly, battery hens can suffer from feather loss, blisters, tumours and foot and leg deformities (Wesleyan University, 2013). Due to the size of the cages and living conditions of battery hens, they are prevented to perform natural instincts such as wing flapping, scratching, dust bathing, perching and foraging, and usually, they can become aggressive and attack each other (RSPCA, 2013).

Examples of intensive livestock farming of cattle (left) and chickens (right). Sources: http://nourishedmagazine.com.au/blog/articles/why-not-to-eat-grain-fed-meat & [|http__://www.aact.org.au/battery_hens.htm__]

Aside from the environmental and animal welfare concerns, large scale factory farming has brought unintended public health consequences to workers and those living in the in the vicinity of a livestock farm through air pollution and water contamination (PEW 2008). In addition, Pew Commission on Industrial Farm Animal Production has stated new public health concerns from industrial animal production which include foodborne diseases caused by bacteria such as E.coli and Salmonella, as well as, the use of animal hormones negatively impacting human health and the environment (PEW, 2006). Extensive literature has also provided evidence that throughout history, since the domestication of animals, animal pathogens have been transmitted to humans. As summarised by Ross (2010), some of these epidemics include measles, influenza, and smallpox, along with, in the most recent decades, the outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Swine flu and bovine Spongiform encephalopathy (mad cow disease) (Ross, 2010).

As stated earlier, the consumption of meat is rising worldwide, due to both the rising number in human population and the increasing demands of meat from urbanised affluent areas (McMichael and Butler, 2010, p. 173). Nonetheless, the access and distribution of meat has been very unequal worldwide and within nations. In the United States in 2011, 10% of the American households were food insecure, and therefore, did not have access to enough food to maintain an active healthy living (U.S Department of Agriculture, 2012). Additionally, many people living in developing countries or poorer nations are still undernourished, with an estimated 842 million people (or around 1 in 8 people) suffering from chronic hunger, and not getting sufficient food to maintain an active life (FAO. 2013).

Cultural and Social Analysis
sources: [] and []

The intake of foods has influenced many aspects of human evolution in both human biology and culture (McMichael and Butler, 2010, p. 173). Milton (1999) explains that extant apes and humans are both descendant from a common plant eating ancestor, nonetheless, humans who used to live in a more arid environment than extant apes, included different dietary strategies. By including meat in their diet, it provided the required energy humans needed to develop cerebral expansion, and an increase in body size without the sacrificing mobility, agility and social characteristics (Milton, 1999). The culture of meat consumption has been evolving since the early developments of language, social grouping and religion (Swatland, 2010). For example, Swatland (2010) argues that raising and slaughtering animals, preserving and distribution of meat required social cooperation, which indicated a level of trust, and friendship, and therefore contributing to language development. Religion plays an import role on the types of food cultures and societies eat, in this instance, Muslims have strict dietary laws which are protected by the holy Quran, and therefore their choice of meat depends on its halal status (Nakyinsige, Man, & Sazili, 2012)

Meat consumption can also have different roles depending on the nation. In some developing countries, meat offers a way of reducing malnutrition and food insecurity, nonetheless, in developed countries meat consumption is so vast that it has shown a rise in diet related non-communicable disease (McNeill & Van Elswyk, 2012). Increased consumption of red meats and processed meats, which contain saturated fats and sodium respectively, have been shown to lead to weight gain and thereby raising the risk of developing some cancers and cardiovascular disease (The American Dietetic Assiciation, 2009). In Australia, 3.4 million people were suffering from cardiovascular disease in 2007-2008, and 1 in 6 deaths in 2009 occurred due to cardiovascular disease (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2013).

Economic factors have also influenced a great shift in the types and amounts individuals consume foods; for example, China has been experiencing very rapid economic growth in the past three decades, which has resulted in an increase in consumer incomes, which in turn has led to changes in food consumption (Australian Government, Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, 2012). These rises in demand for food has promoted the development of the food industry and together with changes in technology, has increased the amounts and types of agricultural products (Nam, Jo, & Lee, 2010).

The advances of the meat industry today can be explained by Ritzer’s (2006) work on McDonaldization of society. This theory, which emerged from Max Weber’s social theory on rationality and bureaucracy, focuses on the themes of calculability, efficiency, predictability, and control. As stated earlier, the increase in demand for higher standards and quantity of meat products meant that the meat industry has had to become more efficient in its processes to satisfy both the domestic and global markets. In terms of efficiency, the meat industry engages in raising large numbers of animals in the smallest space possible, an example of this being battery hens, these layer hens live in cages arranged in battery format in long rows stacked on top of each other, so that hundreds of thousands of birds can be housed in a single factory. In Addition, these animals are fed foods that are unnatural to them so they can increase in weight in the shortest time possible. As with the any business, the main objective of the meat industry is to make a profit (calculability), and as explained in the literature review, this has been achieved at the cost of the environment, human health, and animal welfare. For example, the total value of Australia's off-farm of just beef and sheep meat industry is estimated to be approximately AU $12.3 billion (Meat and Livestock Australia. 2012). Control, is explained by the laws and legislation regulating the meat industry, and finally, predictability can be applied to consumers expecting certain standards on the meats they buy, for example, colour of the meat (which influences its quality), slaughtering procedure (as in halal meat), portion sizes and the expectation that the industry maintains a continuous supply.

Analysis of the Artefact and Own Learning Reflection
The artefact, a cover of a book published in 1920, published by Armour and Company, Chicago, explains the expansion of the livestock industry. As the book explains, the increase in supply of meat is not driven by local butchers but by the higher global demands. This artefact represents the scale of mass production of meat, which for many years did not consider the consequences caused to our health, the environment and animal welfare. Although meat in the diet has very important physiological roles, as it contains bioavailable sources of ion, zinc, amino acids and vitamin B12, we are consuming very large amounts of it, which our bodies do not need, and in turn is causing us harm. Culturally, I have grown up eating meat, and I still do. It is impossible to ask individuals to stop consuming meats, as this forms and important part of who they are in terms of their culture and religion. Nevertheless, I believe, from the current scientific evidence available, that we need to start making more conscious decisions in regards to the meat we buy. Free range animals are not only more ethically raised providing welfare to the animals, but also it has been suggested that grass fed cattle and free-range chicken are better to our health. In addition, studies also suggest that a plant based diet that allows small amounts of meat are also beneficial to our health. Eating less meat that has been raised ethically is also better for the environment as we will not exhaust our land for animal food, water and energy, and as Michal Pollan, author of "In defence of food" states that "what is better for the environment is also better for our health"

Finally, I would like to share some links that can help raise awareness on animal welfare, sustainability and helping us make better choices on the types of meat we purchase: Compassion in World Farming: [] Food Tank: http://foodtank.org/

Reflections
See comments on: 'Red Dust, Forget Us!' - Healthcare Down Under A 'Firey' Awakening